Hallucinations and Illusions - The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia (2024)

From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia

Hallucinations and Illusions: A Study of the Fallacies of Perception (1897) is a book by Edmund Parish.

It discusses the fallacies of memory and perception and explores waking hallucinations of healthy persons.

Full text

PREFACE.

THIS book originated in an examination, upon whichI was recently engaged, of the " International CensusofWaking Hallucinations in the Sane. "While comparing for this purpose all the worksaccessible to me on hallucination and fallacious perception in general, I was struck by the fact that thewriters, and especially the more modern writers, treatfor the most part only of single aspects of the subject,such as fallacies of perception occurring under morbidconditions, or in dreams, throwing at most but a casualglance at related phenomena. The waking hallucinations of healthy persons are more or less completelyignored by them; and this neglect is natural enough,if we consider how meagre are all the accounts of suchhenomena hitherto published.But now that the inquiry originated by the International Congress of Psychology at its meeting in Parisin 1889 has furnished ample and trustworthy data, itseems possible to bring these particular phenomenaof fallacious perception into line with the rest. Moreover, as this subject has already been dealt with atthe Congress held in London in 1892, and willvi PREFACE.doubtless form part of the proceedings of subsequent congresses, it seems to me that it may notbe superfluous as a preliminary inquiry to reviewthe whole field of sensory delusion, to indicate itsrelations to normal or objective " perception, andto elucidate the common organic principle which,under whatever diversity of conditions, underlies alikenormal and fallacious perception.In the course of such an undertaking it is impossibleto avoid supplementing by hypotheses our scantyknowledge of physiology and the localisation ofcerebral functions. I have endeavoured, however,where practicable, to make good this deficiency, andhave sought by an exhaustive study of the German,English, French, and American literature of thesubject to establish my conclusions on a thoroughlybroad basis. In doing this I have not dependedon the more recent cases only, but have carriedmy researches as far back as the early part of thecentury, and thus rescued from oblivion many forgotten observations.On the other hand, the collected results of the"International Census of Waking Hallucinations inthe Sane " furnish fresh material not yet criticallyhandled or presented in literary form; at all events,a short note on the subject in F. C. Müller's Handbuch der Neurasthenie is all I have been able to find.The statistics in question, with the exception of thoseof the Munich Collection, have, it is true, been submitted to the London Congress, but they have notPREFACE. viihitherto been published. I take this opportunity tothank the Society for Psychical Research and theMunich Psychologische Gesellschaft for the permission which they have kindly granted me to publishthem here. Indeed, the completion of my work,which grew out of a series of lectures delivered beforethe Munich section of the Gesellschaft für Psychologische Forschung, has been rendered possible onlyby the sympathy and interest which the members ofthat society accorded to me. I feel myself indebted tothem all, but more especially to Baron von SchrenckNotzing ( Munich) , Dr. F. C. Müller ( Alexandersbad),Dr. Max Dessoir ( Berlin), and Dr. Burckhardt- Préfargier, for the constant stimulus of their sympatheticinterest, and the help they have kindly given me incollecting material and in reading the proof- sheets.EDMUND PARISH.MUNICH, April 1894.

PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION.THE English edition is not a mere translation of theGerman original. In the first place, I have been atsome pains to render it generally more complete andbring it up to date; and, moreover, as fuller particularsof the " International Census of Waking Hallucinations " have been published since the appearance ofthe original edition, it has been necessary to recastthe chapters dealing with that subject, and in theprocess of recasting them I have not neglected to profitby the hints and objections of my critics. Finally, anew chapter has been added, in which an attempt ismade to enlarge the scope of the work and to indicatethe relation of the views set forth to psychology ingeneral. I trust that the book in its new form maymeet with as kindly a reception as on its firstappearance.E. P.MUNICH, April 1897.

REESETHEOFLIBRARYUNIVERSITYOF CALIFORNIACONTENTS.CHAPTER I.PAGEINTRODUCTIONDefinition-Universal Fallacies of Perception -Due to Ambiguity of the Stimuli-Arising out of Defects or PathologicalStates of the Organism-The " Feeling of Unity " conditionedby "Eccentric Projection " Psychological Conception ofFalse Perception-Criticism of the Definition that Hallucination is Ideation equalling Sensation in Vividness -Hallucination is Sensory Perception.-CHAPTER II.FALLACIOUS PERCEPTION IN VARIOUS PATHOLOGICALAND PHYSIOLOGICAL STATESI... 18Esquirol's distinction between Hallucination and IllusionFallacies of Perception in the Insane: In Amentia, Dementia,Melancholia, Mania, Folie Circulaire, Delusional Insanityand Paranoia, General Paralysis -The share of the severalSenses in these Delusions, and their effect on the Patient—InPsychoneuroses: Epilepsy, Hysteria-In Ecstasy-In Statesof Intoxication: Alcohol, Chloroform, Ether, Haschisch,Santonin, Cinchona, Opium, Nitrous Oxide Gas-SpecificAction of Narcotics and Personal Reaction- In acute SomaticDiseases-In Dreams-In Hypnosis-Crystal Visions-Dissociation of Consciousness the Common Characteristic of allthese States.xii CONTENTS.CHAPTER III.WAKING HALLUCINATIONS AND THE RESULT OF THEINTERNATIONAL CENSUS ...Early Accounts-The International Census-General Results-Sex, Age, Nationality, and State of Health of the Percipients—Their so- called “'Waking " State really one ofDissociation-Indications of this in the Narratives -Why suchIndications are sometimes wanting -Hallucinations classifiedaccording to the Sense affected-The less startling Hallucinations are soon forgotten.CHAPTER IV.THE PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESS IN FALLACIOUS PERCEPTION ...Early Attempts at Explanation-The Centrifugal PsychicTheories—Objections-The Centrifugal Sensorial Theories—The Conception underlying all Centrifugal Theories —Arguments against this Conception -Centripetal Theories-Identityof the Sensory and Ideational Centres-Theories of Pelmanand Kandinsky-False Perception a Phenomenon conditionedby disturbed Association - Meynert-James-Explanationsuggested by the Author-Its Advantages-Schematic Presentation of the Physiological Process in False PerceptionVarious Objections met.CHAPTER V.THE FACTORS OF FALLACIOUS PERCEPTIONThe dissociated State-Definition -Pathological and Physiological Causes-Varieties of Dissociation -Action of Dissociation -The Stimuli-Post-mortem Reports -Excitation of thevarious Senses -Cramer's Theory.PAGE77IIO152CONTENTS. xiiiCHAPTER VI.THE CONTENT OF FALLACIOUS PERCEPTION-....PAGE185The Content dependent ( 1 ) on Memory and Experience—(2) On the Conditions which induce the Hallucinated State-(3) On the Temperament and Mental Environment of theIndividual (4) On the Brain-state which obtains at theMoment (Exhaustion , Concentration, Emotions, SubconsciousProcesses )-(5) On the Sensory Stimuli. -Explanation of someFacts generally misinterpreted ( 1 ) Certain phenomenausually cited in support of retinal participation—( 2) NegativeHallucinations-The Phenomena and Nature of Rapport—Negative Hallucinations not explained by diversion of attention-Their true Nature.CHAPTER VII.THE INITIATION OF FALLACIOUS PERCEPTION ... 221The Problem: How are Reflex Hallucinations to be accountedfor? (1 ) Synæsthesia, ( 2) Hallucinations of Memory, aspossible explanations-Author's attempt to explain them bydistinguishing between the preparatory and the startingFactor-A New Conception of the Point de Repère.CHAPTER VIII.THE MANIFESTATIONS OF FALLACIOUS PERCEPTIONVarious Degrees of Distinctness in Sensory PhantasmsPercipient's Attitude - Sensory Character of the Phenomenanot disproved by a certain feeling of Subjectivity-Attemptsto explain " Audible Thinking "-Automatic ArticulationSpontaneous Cases-Experimental Evidence.236Xiv CONTENTS.CHAPTER IX.TELEPATHIC HALLUCINATIONS"6...Results of the International Census-Various sources of error:(1 ) Hallucinations of Memory, ( 2 ) Reading back of detailsafter the event, (3) Exaggeration of the CoincidenceComparison between Coincidental and Non- Coincidental' Waking " Hallucinations misleading—Indications of Dissociation in the Death- Coincidences of the Report-Association of Ideas not to be ignored -Other proofs of TelepathyCriticised-Alleged special characteristics of " Telepathic "Hallucinations.PAGE272CHAPTER X.SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ...Recapitulation of Argument-All Hallucinations conditionedby Dissociation-Objection to Physiological Explanations fromstandpoint of Psychology-Criticism of Psychological Position-The Physiological Scheme provisional -Bearings of thisStudy on Theories of Perception generally.APPENDIX ... ...321... ... 343HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS.

REESE LIBRARYOF THE UNIVERSITYOF CALIFORNIAHallucinations and Illusions.1CHAPTER I.INTRODUCTION.Definition-Universal Fallacies ofPerception - Due to Ambiguity of the Stimuli-Arising out of Defects or Pathological States ofthe Organism -The " Feeling of Unity "conditioned by "Eccentric Projection " -PsychologicalConception of False Perception - Criticism of the Definition that Hallucination is Ideation equalling Sensationin Vividness-Hallucination is Sensory Perception.WHILST in general our sensory perceptions may beshared by all persons with normal senses, there aresome cases which form an exception to this rule.¹Perceptions of the first class are described as " ob-、 jective," those of the second class as " subjective,"that is to say, as lacking an external objective basis.Subjective perceptions are variously known as hallucinations, illusions, dream images, fallacious perceptions, and so on.It is important at the outset of such an inquiry tograsp the difference between sensory and mentaldelusions. In sensory deceptions the subject notonly imagines something, but believes that he sees or' Gurney, " Hallucinations, " Proceedings ofthe Society for PsychicalResearch, 1885.I2 HALLUCINATIONShears that something—in fact, that he perceives it withhis senses. Of course the observer is liable to bemisled by the expressions of the patient, whose looseuse of words may lend his délire, or mental delusion ,the guise of a sensory impression. But a somewhatcloser analysis will serve to make the distinction clear.When, for instance, a patient with peritonitis¹ declaresthat a church congress is being held inside her, andsays that she can "feel it " and so on, that is a mentaldelusion, originating in certain localised sensations inthe abdomen, and not a fallacy of perception, for no oneknows what a congress in such a locality would feellike. But should a further development take place,and the patient imagine that she hears the speechesand arguments of the contending parties in the congress, we then of course have an auditory hallucination.A similar case is that of the paralytic who imaginedin persistent constipation that he carried the childof the Grand Duke of Baden within his body, andinsisted that he would have to be delivered. Manysuch cases, as for instance those which result fromtabes, as well as similar phenomena observed inhypochondriasis, are to be reckoned not as sensoryhallucinations, but as false inferences ( Hoppe²) oras mental delusions (Westphal¹).1 Leuret, quoting Dagonet, Traité des maladies mentales.2 Hoppe, Erklärung der Sinnestäuschungen bei Gesunden undKranken.The term " Sinnestäuschung " (sensory fallacy) has been regardedas misleading by L. Meyer, " Ueber den Charakter der Hallucinationenvon Geisteskranken, " in the Centralbl. f. d. med. Wissensch. ( 1865) ,No. 43, and before him by Hecker, Ueber Visionen ( 1848 ) , by the latterfrom an objection, based on a confusion of physiological and psychological grounds, that the senses do not err, but that what is faithfullytransmitted by them is falsely interpreted (compare Goethe, " DieSinne trigen nicht, aber das Urtheil trügt; " Michéa, Du délire desrTINK UNIVERSITYAND ILLUSIONS CALIFORNIA 3Universal Fallacies ofPerception. -By the foregoingpreliminary definition of fallacious perception we haveexcluded from the outset those sensory delusionswhich, by reason of their objective foundation andthe nature of our sense organs, are experiencednormally and necessarily by all persons.¹ To thisclass belong phenomena like the fata morgana, thespectre of the Brocken, the illusion of " a straightstick bent in a pool, " the doubling of an object seenthrough a prism, or by pressure on the eyeballcausing divergence of the axes of vision. Anomalousfunctioning of the accommodation muscles of the eyecan produce the same result as that artificially induced by the means just described, as we see indiplopia.2 Or again in diplopia monocularis, functionalsensations ( 1846): " c'est l'esprit qui se trompe, non pas l'organesensorial; " and the same is to be found in Aristotle) . But this is notso simple as it seems. A patient who imagines he is pursued, and whoon hearing the sound of water dropping (compare Sander's article ,Sinnestäuschungen, " in the Real-Encyklopädie, XVIII. ) , says," Hark! they are outside, they are trying to bribe the keeper withgold," is suffering from a mental delusion; but in the case of a patientwho declares he hears, not the sound of water dropping but the clinkof gold being counted out, a fallacy of sense- perception may be presumed. On the whole, it seems to me that the term "false perception (Trugwahrnehmung) is the best general term . Westphal in Arch.f. Psych. , i. p. 48.661 Blumröder in Schmidt's Jahrb. , xlviii. p. 368.42 For examples see Weitenweber's Beitr. , iv. I; Lochus, " Einigeprakt. Bem. " in Schweiz. Zeitschr. , iii. 2; A. Huck, " Ueber dieTäuschungen," etc. , in Müller's Arch. f. Anatomie, 1840, No. 1;Meyer, “ Ueber einige Täuschungen " in Arch. f. d. physiol. Heilk.,1842, Heft 1; Guépin in Ann. d'Oc. , xliii. , Febr. -March, 1860; M.Benedict in Arch. f. Ophthalm. , x. 1 , pp. 97 et seq. , 1864. In activesquinting the second image is wanting, in passive ( paralytic) squintingit is present. Its absence in the first case is explained by the fact thatthe active squinter has gradually learned to suppress the second image— or rather that use has altered the mutual relation between the tworetinæ. Compare A. Graefe in vol . vi. of his Collected Works, where he4HALLUCINATIONSnerve disturbances of a hysterical nature may resultin failure of accommodation, causing the double image,which is normally formed by the lens, to be distinctlydeveloped on the retina as two separate images, andso penetrate to the percipient's consciousness.¹For the rest it will suffice here to note briefly themost familiar of the normal sensory delusions, suchas the apparent movement of the sun round theearth, the apparent sinking down of the earthobserved by balloonists, the flying past of trees,telegraph-posts, etc., and the rhythmic rising andsinking of the telegraph wires during a railwayjourney, the alteration in the size of the moonaccording to its position in the sky, the apparentsmallness of houses near the line, seen out of ashows howthe seemingly lost second image may be raised again into consciousness. Compare also A. Dehennes in Gaz. des Hôp. , 1878, No. 57 ,and Carl Stellwag von Carion, Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiet der prakt.Augenheilkunde, 1882, with the illustrations, pp. 138 et seq. For doublevision caused by paralysis of the muscles of the eye in diabetes mellitus,Leber in Arch.f. Ophth. , xxi. 3, 1875; the same in sausage- poisoning, inArch. f. Ophth. , 1880, vol. 2; on discontinuance of the morphia habit,Levinstein in Berl. klin. Wochenschr. , xiii. 14, 1876; in tabes dorsalis ,Bernhardt in Virch. Arch. , lxxxiv. , 1881; Th. v. Schroeder, Arch. f.Augenheilk. , xxxi . , 1885 , in lead- poisoning; and so on. Karl Hirschberger (" Binoculares Gesichtsfeld Schielender, " Münch. Medic.Wochenschrift. , 1890, No. 10) , who has carefully investigated the subject, has given a short account of the condition in which thedouble images of squinting arise and drop out of the visual field.1 K. Lissauer, Ueber Diplopia monocularis hysterica, Diss. Berlin ,1893. Besides the references he gives, compare Cohen in Casp.Wochenschr. , 1836, No. 10; Behr in Blasius klin. Zeitschr. , 1837 ,Heft 4; Pupke in Med. Zeitschr. v. Ver. f. H. in Pr. , 1838, No.4; N. Friedreich, Beiträge zur Lehre von den Geschwülsten innerhalb der Schädelhöhle, ii. (Würzburg, 1853 ); Engel, Beitr. zurPhysiologie des Auges, 1850; Galezowski in Ann. d'Ocul. , liv. p.199, 1865; Unterharnscheid in Klin. Monatsbl. f. Augheilk, xx. , Febr.1882; L. Bouveret and E. Chapotot in the Revue d. médecine, 1892,p. 728.AND ILLUSIONS. 5passing train, the pigmy size of the people we lookdown on from the top of a high tower, and so on.¹Another class of visual errors is associated with theperception of certain mathematical figures and outlines. The simplest illustration of these "opticalparadoxes " is the following: take two straight linesof equal length; from each end of one draw a shortline at an acute angle, and from each end of theother a similar line at an obtuse angle; the secondstraight line will then appear longer than the first.2Sensory Delusions resulting from Ambiguity of theStimuli.-Other fallacies of perception are caused byconfused or ambiguous stimuli. This ambiguity maybe due to the nature of the external stimulus, as, forinstance, when confused noises are heard, or objectsseen at a distance, or in darkness or fog, so thatthe distinctive features cannot be clearly recognised.The celebrated picture of Christ on St. Veronica'shandkerchief shows from a distance an apparentlydead face with closed eyes, but on a nearer view theeyes appear open and the expression life-like. Inanother well-known picture, two girls are seen playingat a window, but, on being placed a little way off, thescene changes to a grinning death's- head.Secondly, the ambiguity of the stimulus may dependonthe percipient himself, either because the image seendoes not fall on the point of clearest vision, or because1 For a large collection of such cases see Sully, Illusions ( 1881 );also the various text- books of psychology.2 See G. Heymans' " Quantitative Untersuchungen über das optischeParadoxon," Zeitschr. f. Psychol. und Physiol. der Sinnesorgane, ix.pp. 221 et seq. , where references to the literature of the subjectwill be found, and compare also Lipps' Esthetische Betrachtung u.optische Täuschung; Untersuchungen zur Psychologie u. Esthetikräumliches Formen, which treats of these phenomena.6 HALLUCINATIONSthe sense affected has only a feeble power of discrimination. Thus two similar perfumes may be confusedwhen the percipient is not skilled in making subtleolfactory distinctions. If such a sense encounters anew or almost new stimulus, which, as we shall presently see, must, just because of its novelty, be farmore intensely felt, the chances of deception are proportionately increased. This explains why commonorganic sensation, which is generally only vaguelylocalised, so easily becomes the starting- point ofdelusions when subjected to unwonted conditions.Changes of sensation in the muscles and skin becomesubjectively changes of the substance and dimensionsof the whole physical organism. Anæsthesia caninduce in the patient the hallucination that he ismade of wood or of glass; and paræsthesia inducesensations of shrinking, or of swelling till the roomis too small to hold him and he is being crushedbetween its walls. I have also encountered this lastsensation as a recurring dream in the sane.Sensory Delusions caused by Defects and PathologicalStates of our Organism.-The imperfection of ourorganism opens another door to sensory delusions.We feel only one prick when both points of a pair ofcompasses are touching us at a certain distance apart.Again, if the fore and middle fingers of the samehand be crossed and a pea rolled between them, theeffect produced is as if there were two peas. Veryfeeble stimuli do not reach our consciousness at all,and our perceptions are thus falsified. This isspecially noticeable in a state of fatigue, when the´exhausted nerve elements require exceptionally energetic stimuli to rouse them into renewed activity.The working of the motor centres is also affected byAND ILLUSIONS. 7this cause. For example, when the normal accommodation fails to take place in the eye, the imagesnot falling on the point of clearest vision become dimand confused; or, again, though the normal adjustments occur, it may happen that the correspondingmuscular sensation fails in intensity and we locateall objects in a false direction. The same result maybe artificially induced by paralysing the accommodation muscles of the eye by the aid of a small dose ofatropine; but indeed it may frequently be observed.as a result of exhaustion or inebriation, as when adrunken man passes his hand to the right or left ofhis glass in misdirected efforts to seize it, or fumblesvainly for the key-hole with his latch-key. Again,slight movements of the eye may produce so littleeffect on the mental processes that we refer theshifting of the image on the retina, not to movementof the eye, but to an imaginary movement of oursurroundings- hence giddiness after waltzing, in extreme fatigue, after smoking unusually strong tobacco,and so on.¹To this category belong also the sensory delusionsresulting from the after- effects of a stimulus on theorganism, from the reverberation of the impression,and from the difficulty of distinguishing betweentwo successive stimuli. The impression of the coinfirmly pressed into our hand by a skilful conjurerand then abstracted by him, lasts long enough for usto shut our hands with the conviction that we feelthe piece of money still there. The colours on thecolour-top become blended; and in the zoetrope wethink we see an acrobat jumping over successivehorizontal bars, whilst in reality a series of pictures' J. IIoppe, Die Scheinbewegungen ( 1879).HALLUCINATIONSof acrobats in different attitudes spins past our eyes.Complementary images, resulting from stimuli actingeither simultaneously or successively, come under thesame head, but an inquiry into these would lead ustoo far.Many of the examples already cited depend on apathological disturbance of the organism, and areregularly associated with it. Another noteworthyphenomenon of this kind, according to Himly, is thesetting back of the stimuli in the scale ofthe spectrumin hyperæsthesia of the retina; thus, for instance,violet becomes red. The opposite occurs when theorgan is in a condition of low excitability. In certaindisturbances of the ear the pitch of a note is heardhigher or lower than it is in reality.¹ In santoninpoisoning xanthopsia (yellow vision) occurs, as alsoin icterus and in typhoid without jaundice.ear.1 Oscar Wolf, " Unterbindung der Art. car. commun. wegenSchussverletzung " in the Arch. f. Aug.- u. Ohrenheilk. , ii . 2, p. 52.Wolf, who had already pointed out that when the tension of the membrane is increased a tone becomes higher in penetrating it, communicates two cases in which rarefied air, the result of obstruction ofthe tubein the drum-cavity, caused extreme inwards tension of the tympanum and so raised the pitch of several tones to the diseased ear. Thus inone case the middle c and a were heard a fifth , and in another case thekey of A was heard a third higher than they sounded to the normalAfter equalising the difference of pressure by inflation the soundwas again heard purely and correctly. Knapp, in the Arch. f. Aug.-u. Ohrenheilk. , i. p. 93, explains diplacusis binocularis otherwise. Compare Burnett's case in the same Arch. vi. p. 241; further, Blau in theArch. f. Ohrheilk . , xv. p. 233, who postulates a greater tension of themembrana basilaris for deeper hearingofa tone. See alsoWittich, Königsberg. med. Jahrb. , iii. 40; Mach, Sitzungsber. d. Wien. Akad., 1864.2 Lewin, Lehrb. d. Toxicol. ( 1883 ) , p. 239. "After santoninpoisoning, besides scintillations, xanthopsia (yellow vision ) was observed persisting for more than twelve hours. White or very light spotsappear yellowish green, dark spots and especially the shadows of surrounding objects take a more or less deep shade of violet. InAND ILLUSIONS. 9Further, the delusions, commonly described as hallucinations, which are produced by so- called " eccentric✔✔projection " of sensation, may be reckoned as belonging to this class. Thus we often locate a tactualsensation outside our body and even refer it to theextremity of the object which we touch. In writing,for instance, we feel the paper with the pen, in fencingwe feel the opponent's foil with our own. For it is thepeculiarity of the tactile sense that we usually locatethe sensation in the peripheral expansion of the nerves.Accordingly, if the nerve is stimulated in anothercoloured stuffs red seems purplish, yellow very pale and greenish,violet darker, orange pale red, crimson dark, and green yellow-gray"( Mari) . This xanthopsia, noted by Hufeland as occurring in icterusand also in typhoid without jaundice, is by some authors supposed to bedioptric in character. Since both in santonin-poisoning and in fatal casesof icterus (compare Moxon in the Lancet, i. 4, January 1873) the refracting media of the eye prove colourless, and further, since in old age,when thesight is good, yellow lenses are found (van Swieten) , de Martini(Naples) in Comptes rend. , lxvii. p. 259, has assumed a moleculareffect on the retina, and a change in its tension through which thevibratory reaction of the nerve particles is altered under light stimulus.E. Rose, in Virch. Arch. xvi. ( 1859) pp. 233 et seq. , xviii. ( 1860) , 1 , 2,and others suppose rather a narcosis or partial blindness associated with shortening of the colour spectrum. Compare further L. v.Mauthner, " Ueber Santonin " in Oestr. Zeitschr. f. Kinderheilk. , 1856,Febr. - March; the experiments of Dr. Alois Martin in Büchn. n. Rep.,ii. 5; Prof. Falk in Deutsch. Kiin. ( 1860) , 27 , 28; Giov. FranceschiinJourn. d. Chim. méd. 5, Ser. IV. p. 373 ( 1868); R. Farquharsonin Brit. Med. Journ. , 21st Oct. 1871; Th. Krauss, Ueber die Wirkung des Santonin und des Sant. - Natron, Diss. Tübingen ( 1869); J. Heimbeck in Norsk. Mag. f. Lägevinds, 3 R. xiv. 1 ( 1884) . Compare on other chromatopsies, for example on blue vision, Hilbert, "Zur Kenntniss der Kyanopsie, " Arch. f. Augenheilk. , xxiv. 3 ( 1890) , p . 240.The case of xanthopsia after a gunshot wound in the nasal region ,quoted by Hilbert, Arch. f. Augenheilk. , xv. p. 419 ( 1885) , also points to the central origin of such colour hallucinations. Compare on thesubject of red vision, Wiener med. Presse, xxiii . 42; Centralbl. f. pract.Augenheilk. , February 1884, November 1881 , June 1883, February.March 1885.ΙΟ HALLUCINATIONSplace, we refer the sensation to the accustomed spotin the periphery just the same. When the elbow issharply struck, causing thereby stimulation of theulnar nerve, the pain is felt in two places, in theelbow, because of the stimulation of the sensitivefilaments spread out there, and also in the peripheralnetwork of the ulnar nerve in the hand. So afteramputation all stimuli applied to the nerve stumpsare felt in the lost limb, which still seems to be there,so much so that the patient imagines he can moveit about, even years after he has lost it.Professor William James sent a circular containing questionson this point to 800 persons who had suffered amputation, and received 185 answers. He reports that three-fourths of thesepersons stated that they experienced sensations in the lostlimbs, while in a still greater percentage of cases sensationhad been experienced, but had gradually faded out after theoperation—in a few hours, weeks, months, or years, as the casemight be. Sensation in the lost limb, sometimes felt as burning or twitching, cramp in the heel or toes, or numbness -andsometimes consisting in a mere impression that the missing member is there-is so vivid in the first few weeks after theoperation that one patient, for instance, found himself getting\ out a pair of scissors to cut the toe-nails, so distinctly did he feel them; and others tell how they have involuntarily reacheddown their hands to scratch the missing foot. Sometimes thisillusion persists much longer without diminishing in distinct- ness, as in the case of the man who felt as if he had, with theartificial limb, three legs in all, and who found the missingmember very much in the way in coming downstairs. Out ofsuperstition, imagining that the pain he felt in the amputated1 For a detailed account see William James, " The Consciousness ofLost Limbs, " in Proceedings of the American S.P.R. , i. p. 249;compare Principles ofPsychology, by the same, ii . pp. 38 et seq.; WeirMitchell, Injuries to Nerves; Valentin, Lehrbuch d. Physiol.; A.Cramer, Die Hallucinationen im Muskelsinne bei Geisteskranken, etc. ,pp. 85 et seq.; Paré, Oeuvres compl. , ii . pp. 221 , 231; Guéniot in Journ.d. Physiol. (xv. ) iv. p. 416; Rizet in Gaz. de Paris, 1861 , No. 44.AND ILLUSIONS. IIparts depended on some maltreatment or uncomfortable restingplace of his buried leg, one of Professor James's correspondentswrote that he had already disinterred and changed its positioneight times, and he asked the Professor to advise him whetherto dig it up again, saying he " dreaded to. " The case of longestduration reported is that of a man who had had a thigh amputation performed at the age of thirteen years, and who, after hewas seventy, still felt the lost foot distinctly. The imaginaryposition of the amputated part varies: either it maintains anindependent position of its own, or it follows the movements ofthe sound limb, or it may even appear fixed in the attitude itoccupied immediately before the operation . A shoulder- jointcase said his arm seemed to lie on his breast with closed fingers,just as it did eight or ten hours before amputation.As an explanation of this phenomenon, described by DuPrel as a " feeling of spiritual unity " ( Integritätsgefuhl), andby him adduced as a proof of the existence of an astralbody, ' Professor James goes on to assume that just as certain brain- centres respond to any and every stimulus bysensations of light and of sound, so do certain other centresrespond by the sensation of a foot, with its toes, heel, etc. Inthe normal state the foot thus felt is located where the eye cansee and the hand touch it. This immediate inner sensation stillpersists, even when the foot is cut off, and would naturally, onemay suppose, be located about where it used to be, in theabsence of any counter - motive. There would be such acounter-motive if nerves normally excited by foot - sensationswere to find themselves excited every time the stump wastouched; and foot - sensations and stump- sensations being thusassociated, would end by merging in each other. This mergingdoes take place in many cases of what Guériot calls “ subjectiveheterotopy," that is to say, that the extremity, immediately afterthe operation, seems to be in its old place, but by degreesapproaches the stump. This feeling of gradual shrinkagegenerally depends on the feeling of the contact of the extremitywith the stump. The hand may seem to spring directly fromthe shoulder, or the foot from the knee. A sensation may alsobe experienced as though the extremity were diminishing in¹ Du Prel, Die Monistische Seelenlehre, pp. 157-166; English translation, The Philosophy of Mysticism , 1889.[ 2 HALLUCINATIONSsize, the foot becoming like a child's foot, for instance. Thus inmany cases the consciousness of amputated limbs is graduallylost through merging. Of course where degeneration andatrophy of the nerve-paths ascending to the cortical centreshas been proved, we have an all- sufficient reason why the lostmember can no longer be felt.¹ There are other cases, however, where assimilation is hindered by the nerve - stumpsbeing deeply buried in the tissues. When this is the case,foot-feelings and stump-feelings remain distinct, and the formerwill occur on every stimulus applied to the nerve-stumps. Apatient of Weir Mitchell's had long lost the sensation of hisamputated hand, but when faradisation was applied to theshoulder, this feeling was so suddenly and vividly restoredthat he cried out, “ Oh, the hand! —the hand! " and attemptedto seize the missing member.It would seem that even in cases of congenital defect of theextremities, the same phenomena—¿.e. , the feeling as of movement in the missing finger, or as though the congenitallyshrunken arm were of the usual length--have been observed.The Psychological Conception ofFallacious Perception.-On returning to the consideration of individualfallacies of perception we are met at once by thequestion whether these things are really seen, heard, ina word, perceived, or whether the hallucinated persononly believes that he hears, sees, etc. The latter explanation is the most obvious, and many writers haveaccordingly been led to consider sensory delusions assomething quite different from sensory perceptions,and have described them as images or memories ofexceptional vividness. Thus Crichton2 ( 1798) defines1 François Franck, Leçons sur les maladies de Cerveau ( 1877) , p. 291 .Compare also the note by Gudden on atrophy of the optic nerve inenucleation of the eyeball extending into the occipital- lobes of thebrain, and histologically distinguished from descending degeneration," Ueber die Kreuzung, etc. , " Ges. Abhandl. , p. 140; Monakow inArch. f. Psych. , xiv. , xvi. , and xx.; Stauffer, Ueber einen Fall vonHemianopsie (Marb. Diss. 1890).2Crichton, An Inquiry into the Nature of Mental Derangement, ii.P. 342.AND ILLUSIONS. 13hallucinations and illusions as errors of the mindby which in the one case ideas are taken for mattersof fact, and in the other case real objects are falselyrepresented, but without any general disturbance ofthe intellectual faculties. Hibbert¹ ( 1825) holds thatthey are ideas and memories which surpass in vividness the actual impressions of the moment. Calmeilcalls them ideas transformed into material impressions and referred to the activity of the peripheralorgans, although these latter remain passive. Aubanel2 ( 1839) regards hallucinations as a form orvariety of mental alienation, in which delirious ideasare transformed into sensations, or real sensationsperverted by assimilation to those delirious ideas.Michéa³ ( 1846) considers hallucinations as the transformation-generally involuntary-of memory andimagination into the semblance of sense- perception,and Dendy ( 1841 ) calls hallucination a past andillusion a present recollection. Moreau follows( 1845) with the hypothesis that there are reallyno hallucinations but only a hallucinated state which,from a psychological standpoint, is identical withthe dream state. In this state the mind is supposedto transfer the products or creations of its fantasy toreal life, and to persuade itself that it has heard,seen, or felt as in the normal condition, when it hasreally only imagined it heard, saw, or felt. Esquirol' S. Hibbert, Sketches ofthe Philosophy ofApparitions, p. I. 2 Aubanel, Essai sur les hallucinations.3 Michéa, Du délire des sensations, p. 82.4 Dendy, The Philosophy ofMystery.5 Moreau (de Tours) , Du hachisch et de l'aliénation mentale.6 Compare various articles by Esquirol reprinted from the Dictionnaire des sciences médicales. Further, Des maladies mentales (Englishtranslation, 1845) , and in the Arch. génér. ( 1832) , " Sur les illusions des sens chez les aliénés. "14 HALLUCINATIONSspeaks of hallucinations as cerebral or psychicalphenomena which occur independently of the senses,and consist of external impressions which the patientthinks he experiences, though no outward materialcause acts upon his senses. Elsewhere he propoundsthe often controverted explanation that the illusoryimpressions of the hallucinated subject are mentalimages or ideas, reproduced by the memory, elaborated by the imagination, and personified throughhabit. Szafkowski¹ ( 1849) agrees practically withEsquirol, and so does Falret2 ( 1850), with someslight modifications. With these authors may bereckoned Léluts and Leuret, since they hold sensorydelusion to be a hybrid phenomenon intermediatebetween ideation and sensory perception; and alsoA. Bottex,5 Brierre de Boismont, and others.In face of all these opinions we must not forget,however, that all sense- perception is ultimately a psychical phenomenon, and that, to use Gurney's words,7"Everypsychological phenomenon that takes the character ofasense-impression is a sense- impression. Whenthe hallucinated person says, I hear so-and-so, or, Isee so-and- so, the words are literally true; for tohim a hallucination is not merely like, or related to,a sense- impression, it is identical with it. " Of course,a man who has been staring at the sun will as a rule1 P. Rufin Szafkowski , Recherches sur les hallucinations au point de vue de la psychologie, de l'histoire et de la méd. légale, p. 8.2 Falret, 66 Leçons cliniques des maladies mentales, " Gazette deshôpitaux ( 1850).3 Lélut, " De la folie sensoriale, " in Gaz. méd. ( 1833) .4 Leuret, Fragments psychol. sur lafolie, p. 33.5 A. Bottex, Essai sur les hallucinations ( 1836).6 Brierre de Boismont, Des hallucinations (2nd ed . , 1852; translated by R. T. Hulme, 1859 ).7 Gurney, loc. cit . , p. 155.AND ILLUSIONS. 15think it less accurate to say that he sees a shiningdisc wherever he looks, than to say that he fancies it.In the same way, we follow the beaten track ofthought when we say of a dream or some suchsensory delusion, " I thought I saw," " I imagined Iheard," and so on.¹ Others, again, repudiate thesemodes of expression, and maintain that the seer ofvisions or the dreamer of dreams not only believes hesees, but sees and hears in very fact.2 Thus bothparties commit the same error, in that they take thebelief in sense- perception for something different fromsense-perception itself. As a matter of fact, to"believe one sees and to see are two expressions meaning the same thing. The former merelyreiterates the fact that seeing, etc., is a purely subjective act. A hallucination is then a sense- perception like any other, " only there happens to be noobject there, that is the whole difference. "3" ""Accordingly we find it taken for granted in nearlyall modern psychological inquiries, that hallucinationis a sense-perception, and that the only question ofpractical importance-viz. , whether the object is oris not really there is psychologically irrelevant.Griesinger's paraphrase of hallucinations as " subjective sense-images which are projected outwardsand take apparent objectivity and reality," and¹ The usual expression employed by the Greeks was doкeîv, by theRomans videri, in speaking of dreams and visions. In middle- highGerman dunken is generally used. ( P. Radestock, Schlafund Traum,Note 222. )2 For instance, Griesinger, Die Pathol. u. Therapie d. psych.Krankheiten ( 2 Ed. 1867) , p. 86; English translation, MentalTathologyand Therapeutics ( London , 1867 ): " The patient sees, hears,smells really, he does not merely imagine that he sees and hears. "3 W. James, The Principles of Psychology, ii . p. 115Griesinger, loc. cit. , p. 85.REESELIBRAROF THEUNIVERSITOF CALIFORNIA16 HALLUCINATIONS" 1Esquirol's contention that we must regard as hallucinated the person " qui ait la conviction intime d'unesensation actuellement perçue lorsque nul objet extérieur propre á exciter cette sensation n'est à portéedes sens," are now combined in the short definition ," Hallucination is perception without an object. "?Indeed Taine availed himself of this conception toinvert the proposition; for since, he says, what weobjectify in normal perceptions is present sensation ,while in hallucination what we objectify is remembered or represented sensation,3 " au lieu de dire quel'hallucination est une perception extérieure fausse,il faut dire que la perception extérieure est une hallucination vraie."4From the standpoint now arrived at it seems unjustifiable in a discussion on fallacies of perception toplace the hallucinations and illusions of insanity inopposition to those of other states; or, like Hagen,Schüle, and Kandinsky, to exclude dreams andreckon as hallucinations only those fallacies of perception which appear among true sensory impressionsreceived from the external world and with a vividnessequalling theirs.5 Whether I " hallucinate " witheyes closed or open, whether I see distinct and vividimages, or dim floating shapes, is a matter of no¹ Esquirol, Des maladies mentales ( 1838) .2 Ball, Leçon sur les maladies mentales ( 1881 ) , p. 62.3 H. Taine, De l'intelligence, 4th edition , ii . p. 13.4 The merit of having first assigned to hallucinations this sensorycharacter, in opposition to the view of the authors just quoted above, whor*gard them merely as vivid ideas with the appearance of sense- percep- tions, belongs in Germany to J. Müller and Burdach, and in France toBaillarger (" Des Hallucinations, etc. , " in the Mém. de l'Acad. roy. d.Méd. , xii. ) .Hagen, " Die Sinnestäuschungen in Bez. auf Physiol. , Heilk. u.Rechtspflege" ( 1837).5 1SAND ILLUSIONS. 17importance. The dimmest, most formless mist whichI " see," or "think I see," is really seen, and eventhough this visual impression may have arisen subjectively, it should nevertheless be called a fallaciousperception, hallucination, or illusion, quite irrespectively of how it originated, or what circ*mstancesfavoured the appearance of the phenomenon,¹ andquite irrespectively also of its influence upon thepercipient, or his attitude with regard to it. Thusall hallucinations and illusions may be reckoned asfallacious perceptions, whether observed in the saneor the insane, whether occurring in sleep or in thewaking state, whether arising spontaneously or experimentally induced. Ofcourse we must not on thataccount assume that the physiological process accompanying hallucinatory perception depends in all these caseson similar conditions of the brain, although it is highlyprobable that it rests on analogous functional principles.Before we pass on to this question we must firstconsider the various conditions under which fallaciousperceptions occur, and thus familiarise ourselves withone group of the facts concerned .1 Michéa, who seeks to separate the false hallucinations-those ofdreams, for instance-from the true ones of the waking state (op. cit. ,p. 102), and says that the existence of hallucinations implies thewaking state, as dreams imply that of sleep, has yet to add that thestate between waking and sleeping is peculiarly favourable to hallucinations.2 Among those who hold as analogous phenomena dreams, thedelirious images of fever, hallucinations, etc. , are: Maury, Morel op.cit., A. Krauss, " Der Sinn im Wahnsinn, " Allg. Zeitschr. f. Psych. xv. 6,xvi. 1 , 2; A. Mayer ( Mayence) , Die Sinnestäuschungen ( Vienna, 1869);compare also Hoppe, Erklärung der Sinnestäuschungen, etc. , and Kohl.schütter in the Zeitschr. f. ration. Medic. , R. iii . , B. 34, p. 46.2CHAPTER II .FALLACIOUS PERCEPTION IN VARIOUS PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL STATES.Esquirol's distinction between Hallucination and IllusionFallacies of Perception in the Insane: In Amentia,Dementia, Melancholia, Mania, " Folie Circulaire," Delusional Insanity and Paranoia, General Paralysis—Theshare of the several Senses in these Delusions, andtheireffect on the Patient -In Psychoneuroses: Epilepsy,Hysteria-In Ecstasy-In States ofIntoxication: Alcohol,Chloroform, Ether, Haschisch, Santonin, Cinchona,Opium, Nitrous Oxide Gas-Specific Action of Narcotics and Personal Reaction-In acute Somatic Diseases -InDreams-In Hypnosis-Crysta¹ Visions —Dissociation ofConsciousness the Common Characteristic of all these States.IN accordance with Esquirol's definition, ¹ two sortsof sensory deception are generally distinguished:-(1 )Illusions, or " the false interpretation of externalobjects; " ( 2) Hallucinations, or " subjective sensoryimages" which arise without the aid of external stimuli,but are projected outwards and thus assume apparentobjective reality.21 Esquirol, " Sur les illusions des sens chez les aliénés, " Arch. gén.,1832.2 Griesinger, loc. cit. , § 52; still earlier Arnold, Observations onthe Nature, Kinds, Causes, and Prevention of Insanity ( 1782) , speaksof the mental state of the individual who thinks he sees and hears whatothers neither see nor hear, and who imagines he holds converse withbeings or perceives objects which are not of the senses, or which do notso exist in the outward world as they appear to him. Writers beforeHALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS. 19As briefly indicated above, mere misinterprctationsof sense- perceptions should not be regarded assensory fallacies. In the long run, therefore, nosatisfactory theory can be based on Esquirol's distinction, as is sufficiently indicated by the manyunsuccessful attempts to reach one. But, generallyspeaking, nearly all observers are agreed to considerillusion as a mixture of subjective and objectiveelements of perception, or as an incomplete sensorydelusion, and to restrict the word hallucination entirely to new sensory creations. If a man sees something where there really is something to be seen , thenhe is said to be the subject of an illusion; if heperceives something where there is nothing, then heis said to be hallucinated. Apart from other objections, such a definition is open to the reproach ofemploying a physical differentia in a matter purelypsychical; ¹ but as usage has to a certain extent fixedEsquirol do not agree in their terminology. Sauvages and Felix Platerdescribe as hallucinations those errors which are caused by failure inthe functions of the outer sense organs, and include with them singing inthe ears, diplopia, vertigo, hypochondriasis, and somnambulism. Underthe name of " deliria, " the phenomena which have their rise in thebrain are somewhat vaguely distinguished. Darwin agrees with these writers in his Zoonomy. Ferrier, An Essay towards a Theory ofApparitions, p. 95, comprehends under hallucination all deceptiveimpressions from musca volitantes to the most terrifying phantoms.Even in the middle of the present century the question of distinguishingbetween illusions, hallucinations, and delusions played an importantpart in a murder trial in England; see Bound in the Asylum Journal,-July 1856.1 Moll (Hypnotism, fourth English edition , p. 112) allows himselfto be led into a similar error when he says illusion may be regarded asthe sum of a positive and a negative hallucination, as in each illusionsomething present is not perceived, and something not present is per- ceived. What difference would there be then between an illusionand a fully developed hallucination which blots out that part of the field of vision which it occupies?20 HALLUCINATIONSthe meaning of the two words, we shall adopt, at leastfor the present, the usual distinction , employing illusionto denote a sensory deception which may be referredto some external nerve stimulus, and hallucination todenote one which cannot so be referred.One other distinction must be briefly considered ,the division, namely, of hallucinations into " positive "and " negative." While by the former is meant thesubjective perception of an object where there is none,by the latter is understood the hallucinatory nonperception of an object which is present. As there isconsiderable confusion about the exact nature of"negative hallucinations," I shall refer to the questionin more detail later, and content myself here with thisbrief reference.Fallacious Perception in Insanity. -The most frequently quoted of all sense- deceptions are those ofinsanity. Some authors have sought to divide themaccording to their origin into " idiopathic, " thosewhich are primary but which may also occur insecondary consensual morbid states, and " symptomatic," those which occur only as a secondarysymptom of insanity.¹ In any case a distinctionought to be drawn between sporadic hallucinationsnot associated with particular emotional states andhallucinations which reflect the ruling mental tone.This distinction has prognostic importance, since1 Kieser, Elemente der Psychiatrie, p. 298; Michéa, op. cit.Moreau, Mémoire sur le traitement des hallucinations par le daturastramonium, divides hallucinations as follows: -1, those which areisolated and occur without any widespread mental disturbance, andof the subjective origin of which the patient is aware; 2, those which,though indeed primary phenomena, are associated with more or lessprofound psychical disturbance; 3 , those which are not the causes but the results of mental alienation.AND ILLUSIONS. 21observation seems to prove that hallucinationsdepending on certain morbid emotional states arecapable of disappearing with them, whilst independent hallucinations seldom admit of cure, andpass over into the state of secondary psychicalweakness.1The particular forms of insanity in which hallucinations most frequently occur are such as are associatedwith dreamlike beclouding of the intellect. Thus theyare a frequent phenomenon of amentia, but are seldomseen in acute dementia with its deep-reaching paralysisof the higher psychical functions.2 Opinion as to thefrequency of sensory hallucinations in melancholia hasaltered very much of late years, chiefly because of thealtered meaning of the term, and because casespreviously classed under melancholia are now referredto other groups.3 Thus, while hallucinations were atone time regarded as frequent phenomena of this state,1 Griesinger, op. cit. , p . 98. On the other hand, we shall see thatsuch " independent " hallucinations, since they are frequently conditioned by local affections of the sensory apparatus, may disappear onlocal treatment.2 E. Mendel, " Der gegenw. Stand der Lehre von den Hallucinationen," Berl. klin. Wochenschr. , 26, 27 ( 1890).3 Griesinger, Hagen. V. Krafft- Ebing, Die Sinnesdelirien, ii . , 1864,considers the state of melancholia specially favourable to sensorydelusions, because it is characterised by extreme monotony of thought,and by vivid mental images which fill the consciousness. The hallucinations of this state are described as numerous and varied; there arethose associated with hypochondriacal delusions of sin and of persecution, for instance, and the peculiarly vivid and terrifying apparitions of melancholia attonita. Compare Baillarger, " De l'état désignéchez les aliénées sous le nom de stupidité, " Ann. Méd. Psych. ( 1843);Griesinger, op. cit. , p. 252. Weiss, Compend. der Psych. , p. 221 , denies their occurrence. Séglas and Londe, in Arch. de Neurol. ( 1892),68, 69, hold that auditory hallucinations of voices seldom occur inmelancholia, and that they are only found associated with hysteria.22 HALLUCINATIONSthey are now held to be rare, or altogether absentfrom it. In mania hallucinations¹ only appearwhen there is clouding of consciousness, and aregenerally vague and indistinct.2 On the other hand,illusions are frequent, and mistakes of identity arespecially characteristic of this state, though not absentfrom other forms of insanity. Snell, who devotes anarticle to them, is of opinion that the confusions arenot so much caused by mere resemblance, but thata general psychological law lies at their root; thatthe patient is powerless to escape from the familiarthought- channels, and therefore grafts his new impressions on to his old opinions and ideas. In foliecirculaire hallucinations occur in the maniacal periodin association with profound mental disturbance, butKraepelin, Psychiatrie, 4th ed. , says in his definition of melancholia,that from the depression characteristic of the state, no distinct,developed sensory delusions spring up; and he attributes to the occurrence of hallucinations associated with fixed delusions of persecution,a diagnostic value, distinguishing the fear-stupefaction form of hallucinated insanity from melancholia.1 Krafft- Ebing, op. cit. , maintains, on the other hand, that in maniamany deceptions of sight and hearing occur which exert a powerfulthough transitory effect on the sufferer, driving him to violent outbreaks, and tending generally to bring on acute attacks. Butin the tumultuous rush of ideas, none of which can remain fixed,hallucinations are generally of minor importance; besides which thesufferer cannot give them more than a passing attention, they disappearin the whirl of the psychical processes, and do not usually remain toburden the mind with a fixed idea.2 Kraepelin, op. cit. , p. 276. A death's- head appears on the wall;the devil had been looking in at the window.3 Snell, " Die Personenverwechselung als Sympt. d. Geistesstörung,"Alg. Zeitschr. Psych. , xvii. pp. 545 et seq.; compare Kraepelin, " UeberErinnerungtäuschungen ," Arch. f. Psych. , xviii. pp. 230-239; Alt,"Das Symptom der Personenverwechselung bei Geisteskrankheiten, "Allgem. Zeitschr. , xliv.AND ILLUSIONS. 23as regards their occurrence in the melancholic phaseopinion is again divided.¹Delusional Insanity and Paranoia, on the otherhand, abound in hallucinations, so much so that someforms classed under this head are designated "hallucinated insanity " (hallucinatorischer Wahnsinn) and"paranoia hallucinatoria." The sense- deceptions ofdelusional insanity are vivid in their externalisationand resemble in their content the fixed ideas whichthey embody. In cases which end in mental decaythe hallucinations frequently persist long. In depressive monomania they are more fragmentary andvague, but are often kept alive by distressing dreams.Paranoia Hallucinatoria generally begins with anauditory hallucination. The sufferer hears tauntingor insulting voices calling after him in the street,and making injurious insinuations about him, orsometimes unseen speakers incidentally let fall wordswhich confirm his forebodings. In the later stagesof the disease also auditory hallucinations predominate,² and may be extremely vivid and distinct,1 Hagen, Allg. Ztschr. f. Psych. , xxv. pp. 89-92. " No psychosispersisting for any length of time, in which melancholia and maniafrequently or constantly alternate, is associated with hallucinations. "Other writers agree with him, for instance Sander, " Sinnestäuschung" in the Real-Encyklopädie, Bd. xviii.; while Mendel opposesthis view. Weiss concedes the occurrence of hallucinations in themelancholic phase of circular insanity. Baillarger, J. P. Falret, andKirn have observed none, while J. Falret concedes them in a fewsevere cases. Kraepelin, Psych. , encountered them in cases of profoundmental disturbance. Meynert holds that in melancholia the exhaustedhemispheres admit of them more easily than in acute mania.2 Marandon de Montyel (in the Ann. Méd. Psych. , 7 ser. xi. 2)endeavours to refute Christian's assertion that cases of paranoia havebeen met with where the insane ideas, arising out of sexual paræsthesia,do not take the form of " delusions of pride, " by maintaining that thesewere not true cases of paranoia, since no auditory hallucinations werepresent.24HALLUCINATIONSalthough they also occur as soundless inner voices.A kind of auditory hallucination worthy of specialnote is " audible thinking," wherein the patient hearshis own thoughts spoken aloud, and imagines thatthey can be heard by everybody, or else hears themrepeated or dictated to him by an imaginary being.¹Fallacious perceptions of the other senses are also notuncommon. Many sufferers see the persecutors whotorment them from a distance by means of magneticand electrical apparatus.2 They entertain kings andprincesses, and receive angels' visits; all these hallucinations occur in a state of full consciousness. Insome cases they are highly varied, and in others theyare characterised by extreme monotony, and are✓ closely bound up with the dominant fixed idea whichthey illustrate. They are frequently stationary, butmay gradually change with a change of the delusion; ³also in cases where the hallucinations do not reallybelong to the dominant ideas of paranoia, they maystill occur when the disease is associated with periodicacute attacks.The most varied and opposite views obtain on theoccurrence of hallucinations in general paralysis,* prob1 Comp. Grashey's description , " Ueber Hallucinationen, " Münch.med. Wochenschr. , 1893.2 Haslam, Illustrations ofMadness ( 1810).3 Kölle, "Ueber Variabilität d. Wahnvorst. und Sinnestäuschungen, "Alig. Ztschr. f. Psych. , ii . pp. 186 et seq.4 They are absolutely denied by the elder Falret (Des maladiesment. et des asiles d'aliénés, 1864) and Huppert (Arch. für Psych.,iii. p. 330); Colovisch (Etudes sur l. paral. gen. ) questions theoccurrence of hallucinations in general paralysis among women;v. Krafft- Ebing ( Lehrb. d. Psych. , p. 665 ): " In general paralysishallucinations are very rare phenomena, so rare indeed that on theiroccurrence one is forced to suspect a false diagnosis, and to refer themrather to alcoholic paralysis. " Even so early as 1859 Thomeuf notedAND ILLUSIONS. 25ably because of the ambiguity of the line drawnbetween hallucinations on the one hand, and delusiveideas, illusions and paræsthesiæ¹ on the other; andalso because of the difficulty of proving that hallucinations are really present in the advanced stage.21 Generally only those of a disagreeable nature are taken intoaccount, and are regarded as causes of the hypochondriacal delusions ofthe patient. Klein has on the other hand, in the Ann. méd. psych. ,vii. ( 1888), p. 437, sought to refer the euphoristic states of paralyticsto paræsthesia of an agreeable nature.2 Baruk, op. cit.66 (Gaz. d. hôp. , 1859) the infrequency of hallucinations in paralysis as opposed to Lypemania alcoholica " with paralytic crises. See alsoFournier (Dictionnaire de médecine et de chirurgie prat. , i. p. 657).Hagen is of opinion that hallucinations occur but seldom in paralysisand chiefly in the phase of depression; while Dagonet ( Traité desmalad. ment. , 1894) , though he indeed notes their infrequency,observed them chiefly in the " maniacal excitement. " Régis ( Manueld. méd. mentale, 1885) , Ball ( Leçons sur les maladies mentales) , JulesFalret (Études cliniques sur les maladies mentales et nerveuses), Sander,loc. cit. , also Simon and others, describe their appearance as rare.Hitzig, in Ziemssen's Cyclopædia of Medicine, takes this view withregard to visual and auditory hallucinations, but describes illusions ofthe organic sense as frequently occurring. These latter are, on theother hand, classed by Westphal in his work on General Paralysis,with mental delusions (Wahnideen). Linstow also observed frequentorganic hallucinations in general paralysis. Besides the older writerswho have maintained the frequency of hallucinations in general paralysis,Morel may be named ( Traité des maladies mentales, 1860) as havingnoted that the periods of exaltation were favourable to their occurrence,Foville (see article, " Paralysie Générale, " in the Dictionnaire de méd.et d. chirurg. prat. , 1878) , Voisin ( Traité de la paral. gén. des aliénés),Girma (Les hallucinations dans la paral. génér. , 1881 ) , Claus ( “ Ueberdas Vorkommen von Hallucin. bei der dem. paralyt. , " Allg. Zeitschr.f. Psych. , 1878, pp. 35, 551 ) , Schüle, Mendel ( Die progressive Paralyseder Irren. , 1880). Mickle considers that hallucinations and illusionsoccur with greater frequency than was formerly supposed; so alsoChristian , Ritti, Baruk (from whose work, Les hallucinations dans laparal. générale, 1894, I have taken part of this summary). Acker also found hallucinations in over a third of his cases, and Gelhorn (Die26 HALLUCINATIONSTheir content depends on the stage of the disease,and is often childishly inconsistent and erratic.¹ Onepatient thinks himself visited by a golden-haired angel,or bidden to a splendid feast; another tries to climb thewall of his cell, because the king and the chief of policeare up there waiting for him; and a third engages infurious combats with phantasmal monsters, or shrieksaloud for help because imaginary murderers attackhim. It is often possible to induce hallucinations inparalytic subjects by powerful suggestion.Halluc. bei der dem. paralyt. , 1890) in 32 per cent. of his. An analysisof the most important figures yields the following results:-Communicated by No. of Cases of Paralysis observed.No. of Cases in which Hallucinations occurred.Percentage.Aubanel and Thore 120 8 6.6 Brierre de Boismont 147 37 25.1 Saury 109 59 54.1 Mickle 100 55 55.0 Obersteiner 194 20 10.3Jung 127 69 54.3 Mendel 181 65 35.9 Acker 14 5 35.7 Diez 88 6 6.9Gelhorn 100 32 32.0L. Meyer 19 2 10.5Obermeyer 12 1 8.33TOTAL . · 1211 359 27.4These cases are distributed over all stages of the disease, evenincluding the stage of advanced dementia.1 Such cases as that communicated by Baruk, op. cit. , p. 46, inwhich the same hallucination shaped the delusions for months, are veryexceptional. Baruk's patient, a paralytic, was continually prophesyingthat the end of the world would take place on a certain day. As thefinal catastrophe seemed to hang fire, however, he announced that hehad heard a voice in the night saying that it was postponed till the5th of September.2 Brierre de Boismont, op. cit. , pp. 193-195.OF IN1AND ILLUSIONS. OF27Generally speaking, hallucinations may be foundin progressive dementia and mental weakness duringthe earlier stages, but they become less frequent asthe disease advances, and as the patient, becominggradually accustomed to them, no longer feels the keeninterest he displayed at first, nor allows himself to beprovoked by them into outbreaks of frenzy." Asthe mental images become less complex and vivid, asmemory fades and the patient gradually sinks intoprofound psychical weakness, hallucinations and illusions become ever rarer; the former, indeed, arealmost unknown in advanced general paralysis, andthe latter occur but seldom. "1Various writers furnish data concerning the occurrence of hallucinations amongst the insane in general.Esquirol states, for instance, that in about 80 percent. of insane persons hallucinations may be observed. Michéa gives 106 out of 206, Falret about33 per cent., Luys 128 out of 402; but these figuresare too vague to be of much value. Probably theirvagueness is due partly to the difficulty of makingaccurate comparisons, and partly to the ambiguity ofthe line drawn between sensory delusions and fixedideas, paræsthesiæ, etc.しThe Share of the Various Senses in the False Perceptions of the Insane, and their Significance for thePatient. If we now consider shortly the part whichthe various senses play in the hallucinations ofinsanity, and their importance for the patient, weshall find that hallucinations of taste and smell(which are indeed difficult to distinguish from illusions, and also from hyperæsthesia of those senses)1 Krafft-Ebing, Die Sinnesdelirien, p. 48.2 For instance, resulting from disease of the mouth or tongue, etc.28 HALLUCINATIONS1are on the whole infrequent. Where hallucinationsof taste have been noted they are mostly nauseousor poisonous (arsenic, copper, filth), and frequentlygive rise to refusal of nourishment, or it may be tocontinued spitting. In the carly stages of paralysis,on the other hand, gustatory hallucinations of anagreeable nature are sometimes reported,2 the patientperhaps describing the enjoyment of all the variousdishes of an imaginary menu. Olfactory hallucinations are, on the whole, infrequent, and are seldom ofan agreeable character. The experiences of thepatient who declared he smelt all the perfumes ofArabia and the East are exceptional, for hallucinations of this sense are, generally speaking, associatedwith delusions about bodily foulness, and odours ofcorruption and corpses, due to visceral disturbances.Lélut reports the case of an insane woman whodeclared that the pestilential odours she perceivedarose from corpses buried in certain vaults under theSalpêtrière. Sometimes, haunted by the fear ofbeing murdered, the sufferer perceives everywherethe fumes of charcoal, noxious gases, and particlesof poisonous dust.³ Olfactory hallucinations seldom1 Michel in Gaz. des hộp . ( 1864) , II2. Or rather, may not theincreased salivation lead to spitting, and spitting, associated with' automatic movements of the tongue, give rise to a delusive explanation on the patient's part?66 992 Probably these ought to be regarded rather as fables of thediseased mind ( Phantastereien) . An example of an agreeable subjectivetaste-impression of specially long duration is communicated by Marc,De lafolie dans ses rapports avec les questions medico-judiciaires ( 1840),i. p. 191. In this case the patient licked the walls of his cell and thethreshold of the door almost daily for hours together, so that numerousspots and hollows caused by this practice were visible in the plaster ofthe walls. He imagined he was tasting Japanese oranges.3 Auzouy in Ga.. des hộp. ( 186e) , 43.AND ILLUSIONS. 29appear alone, but are generally associated with othersensory fallacies. Some authors consider that theybelong more to the early stages of insanity.¹ Theyare frequently found in association with local disease ofthe ovaries, and of the reproductive organs in general.There is not much to note concerning hallucinations of the tactile sense. We shall consider thoseof the muscular sense later. Hallucinations of the2cutaneous sensibility, of the organic sense, and thelike, are not easily distinguished from paræsthesia, andhowever important they may be in building up mentaldelusions, they are, as a rule, too vague to influencethe content of consciousness directly. It is onlywhen a darkened intelligence " seizes upon them as1 Brierre de Boismont, op. cit. , p. 106; Griesinger, op. cit. , p. 102;v. Krafft-Ebing, Sinnesdelirien, p. 39.I2 Cloquet, Osphrésiologie, p. 138; Weisse, " 2 Fälle von Deliriumder Nase, " Hamb. Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Med. , v. ( 1837 ) . Brierre deBoismont, op. cit. , p . 212: (hysterical women) " complain . . . of the fetid air they breathe, or the detestable taste they have in themouth. " Savage, Insanity and Allied Neuroses ( Clinical Manual):"The climacteric is associated with changes in the reproductive organs,and as a consequence there are frequently hallucinations of smell.am impressed with the fact that where we have ovarian troubles we may expect to find hallucinations of the sense of smell and taste. "Krafft-Ebing, " Ueber Irresein im Klimakterium, " Allg. Zeitschr.f. Psych., xxxiv. 4 ( 1877) , has found olfactory hallucinations in disturb ance of the sexual functions only in association with masturbation anduterine disease, and considers them as depending on sexual excitementin general, but not on the climacteric as such. Schrenck- Notzing,Die Suggestionstherapie bei krankhaften Erschein. des Geschlechtssinns,p. 22, holds that all the hallucinations associated with sexual psychosis,olfactory hallucinations of course included , are of a repulsive character.Schlager, on the other hand (" Ueber Illus. im Bereich des Geruchssinnes bei Geistesgestörten, ” Wiener Zeitschr. , N.F. , i. 19, 20 ( 1858) ,denies the causal nexus between these and states of sexual excitementoccurring at the same time, and considers their coincidence as merelyfortuitous, or rather as depending on the excitement of the nervoussystem generally.30HALLUCINATIONSa basis for a new conception of the ego and theenvironment," that they become of primary significance.¹ But such significance may always beattributed to a hallucination of either of the highersenses, though opinion is divided as to which of thesetwo senses plays the greater part.2Visual delusions may take the form of dreams or ofvisions by day or night. In mental disease occurringin childhood ( 10-15 years)—when hallucinations wouldappear to be specially frequent, even in forms ofdisease less often associated with them in adult lifethe visual type predominates.3 When there is nowidespread intellectual disturbance, visual delusionsare, generally speaking, more easily recognised assuch (by means of the correcting sense of touch) thanthose of hearing. Their danger for the patient consists chiefly in the importance they gain for him byconfirming his mental delusions; to have seen something with one's " own eyes " is held to furnishirrefragable proof of the actuality of the experience.Perhaps auditory hallucinations are fraught witheven graver danger for the sufferer, since they lead himto seek for explanations, and thus bring delusive ideas¹ Kraepelin, Psychiatrie. Erlenmeyer, in his paper read at thetwenty-ninth Congress of the Deutsch. Naturf. und Aerzte ( 1852),expresses the opinion that delusions of the organic sense are of thegravest moment, especially when they spring, not from the periphery,but from the centres of the nervous system .2 Blumröder and Griesinger, among others, hold that visual, andAubanel, Thore, Michéa, and v. Krafft- Ebing that auditory hallucinations are the more frequent.Schoenthal, " Beitrage z. Kentniss d. im frühen Lebensalterauftretenden Psychosen, " Arch. f. Psych. , xviii. p. 836.All insane persons who are subject to hallucinations seek toexplain them . . . then, . . . delusive ideas are developed, whichnaturally are closely associated with the hallucinations. ( Kandinsky,"Zur Lehre von den Hallucinationen, " Arch. für Psych. , xi. )AND ILLUSIONS. 31in their train, and since, as we have already noted,they are but rarely capable of control.¹ Indeed it isbut natural that hallucinations associated with thissense, which plays so great a part in producingmental images, and exerts so far- reaching an influenceupon the mind, should tend to be specially persistent.and convincing.2Nor is it any marvel that hallucinations in generalshould lead irresistibly to delusive ideas for whichthey themselves furnish the material, if on their firstappearance they are not too foreign to the contentof consciousness gained through normal perceptionto admit of being easily interwoven with the patient'sordinary thought,³ and if they are distinct and plastic;or again, if they assail several senses at once andthus deprive the sufferer of every means of testingthem, or come upon him in such numbers that hehas not time for tedious comparisons, or if they¹ E. Kraepelin, “ Ueber Trugwahrnehmungen, ' Vierteljahrsschr.f. wissensch. Philosophie, v. p. 364. According to Griesinger, op. cit.,p. 100, auditory hallucinations indicate a severe affection of thebrain seldom capable of cure, and are often latent for a considerable time.2 A. Cramer, "Die Hallucinationen im Muskelsinn bei Geisteskranken, " attributes specially grave results to so- called thought-audition .The cases communicated by Klinke, " Ueber d. symptom des Gedankenlautwerdens, " do not quite bear this out. In the majority of his cases,though the affection had lasted for years, dementia did not supervene.Be it added, however, that the symptoms of thought- audition were notso clearly marked in his cases as in Cramer's. ( Klinke, op. cit. , Arch.f. Psych. , xxvi. i . )3Kraepelin, Psychiatrie, 4th ed. , p. 79 , holds that the overwhelming power which the hallucinations exert over the mind of thepatient is not chiefly due to their sensory vividness, but to their intimateconnection-a connection often unsuspected by the sufferer-with hisusual train of thought, and their close correspondence with his secretfears and longings. Compare Ziehen, Psychiatrie, pp. 28 et seq.32 HALLUCINATIONSarouse violent emotions which render calm consideration impossible.¹While, on the one hand, hallucinations may implicate several senses simultaneously, on the otherpartial or " unilateral " fallacies may occur.2 It istrue that Rose has denied the existence of unilateralhallucinations, and has endeavoured to explain themaway, as probably a mixture of delusion and truesensation; for instance, in one case where an insanepatient was suffering from ear-ache caused by inflammation ofthe middle ear. But their existence oughtbythis time to be pretty well established. Gall relatesthe case of a minister of state who constantly heardinsulting words whispered into his left ear; and in themore recent literature of the subject such examplesare no longer rare. According to Krafft- Ebing, the unilateral voices are heard better when the other ear isclosed -when, for instance, the patient is lying on it.Fallacious Perception in Psychoneuroses. -Concerning the Occurrence of hallucinations in neurasthenia³ opinion is still divided, but there can be no1 G. Ackermann, Ueber die Entwickelung von Wahnideen ausHallucinatorischen Vorgängen (Diss. Jena, 1892).2 Called " hallucinations dédoublées " by Michéa; compare, amongothers, Souchon, Ueber einseitige Hallucinationen ( Diss. Berlin , 1890);Alex. Robertson , in the Glasgow Med. Journ. , vii. 4, pp. 196 et seq. ,1875. Higier, " Ueber unilaterale Hallucinationen, " Wiener Klinik.(1894), quotes 52 cases from various sources, including Fürer's self-observations ( Centralbl. f. Nervenhlknd. , N. F. v. ) . Toulouse analyses 39 ofthese cases, which are distributed among the various senses as follows: —Unilateral auditory hallucinations, 26; visual , 7; tactile, I; auditoryand visual together, 4; visual, auditory, and tactile , I.3 Thus Falret, for instance, in the Congrès Intern . d. Méd. Ment.(Paris, 1889), maintains that imperative ideas do not occur in associa- tion with hallucinations. On the other side , compare II. Kaan, DerNeurasthen. Angstaffect, etc.; Séglas, De l'obsession , Ann. Mel.Psych. , vii. p. 119 ( 1892).more and more recognised.Their occurrence seems to be becomingAND ILLUSIONS. 33question as to their frequency in psychoneuroses. Inepilepsy they are specially characteristic of the aurawhich precedes the attack, and though often littlemore than vague sense- impressions (red light in acase of Gowers' , the noise of machinery in one ofBennet's), they not infrequently occur as fullydeveloped hallucinations.¹ Generally they are of adisagreeable nature. Thus Gregory mentions thecase of a patient in whom the seizure was alwayspreceded by the apparition of a hideous old womanin a red cloak, who advanced and struck him on thehead with her cane, whereupon he fell to the groundin convulsions. In another case the devil appearedin a shadowy form. Sometimes the apparitions areless frightful. Conolly tells of a patient who saw, inthe last few moments before loss of consciousness,pleasant landscapes spread out before him. In othercases voices are heard. Olfactory hallucinations arealso reported as occurring before the attack, or ratherin the intervals between and alternating with them.²¹ Compare Hagen, Die Sinnestäuschungen, p. 179; Bottex, op. cit.(feeling, smell, taste); Szafkowski, op. cit. , p. 149; Michéa, op. cit.,chap. xv. , among 28 epileptics found 13 hallucinations, chiefly ofhearing and sight; Blumröder, in his review of Michéa's work inSchmidt's Jahrbüchern, lviii. p. 118; L. Meyer, "Visionen einerEpileptischen, " Allg. Zeitschr. f. Psych. , xiv.; Brierre de Boismont,op. cit. , pp. 208 et seq.; Billot, “ Considérations sur la Symptomatologiede l'Epilepsie, " Ann. Méd. Psych. ( 1843) , p. 384; Griesinger, op. cit.,p. 411; Esquirol, Des Maladies Mentales (see Hunt's translation ,1845); v. Krafft- Ebing, Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie, 544 et seq.; Emminghaus, Allgemeine Psychopathologie ( 1878) , pp. 346-348; M. Schunk,Casuistische Beiträge z. epil. Psychose ( 1890) , pp. 6-8; Ernst Hjertström,in the Nord. Med. Ark. , xv. 2, No. 10 ( 1883), on Epileptic Insanity.2 Paget, in Catal. of the Royal Coll. of Surg. , 2128, 2129; further,Med. Times and Gaz. , 13th Aug. 1864 , p. 168; Lancet, 16th June 1866;Ophthalm. Hosp. Rep. , v. , part iv. , pp. 295, 304; Griesinger, op. cit. ,p. 100; Hughlings Jackson , Med. Times and Gaz. ( 1868) , p. 231;Sander, Arch. f. Psych. ( 1873) , p. 234.334 HALLUCINATIONSIn post-epileptic states ( as well as in the epilepticequivalent, which indeed many alienists regard as apost-epileptic condition) , sensory delusions occur, mostfrequently, of course, in epileptic delirium; but theyare not absent from the state of stupor, in which thewild, distraught stare and the occasional outbreaks offrenzy may be the reaction from terrifying fancies andapparitions.Hallucinations are indeed-it may be as well tonote this before proceeding further-a frequent causeof violent and criminal acts; for instance, in hallucinatory insanity, epilepsy, hysteria, and somnambulism, and especially in delirious states (alcohol,morphia, cocaine, and typhus- delirium). Throwninto a paroxysm of terror by the phantoms whichthreaten him, or obsessed by his " voices," thesufferer snatches up a weapon and perhaps commitsa murder or sets fire to the house. Or again, despairing of escape from the enemies who pursue and mockhim, he puts an end to his sufferings and his life atthe same time, and often in a skilful and cunninglyplanned manner.¹Hysteria.-Hysteria, especially the "grande hystérie,”is assailed by numerous hallucinations. Even ininsane cases, where hysteria is present, these shouldbe regarded as hysterical phenomena if they comeand go with the attacks.2 They may appear amongthe earliest indications of the approaching " grand1 Besides the various text- books, compare among older writers, forexample, Asmus, " Hallucinationen, " in the Pr. Ver. Zt. ( 1845 ) , No.50; v. Feuchtersleben, " Mord u. Irrsinn, " Damerow's Allg. Zeitschr. ,ii . 2 ( 1845); Cohen van Baren, " Ueber den trunkfälligen Sinnenwahn, " ibid. , iii . 4 ( 1846 ); Michéa, op. cit.; Brierre de Boismont inthe Ann. d'Hyg. , 1849.2 Brierre de Boismont, Des hallucinations, p. 213 .AND ILLUSIONS. 35aura.attaque," sometimes days before it; occasionally, too,they are mingled with illusions as a part of the trueAs regards these premonitory sense- delusions,the curious law, formulated by Charcot,¹ of the relation of the hallucinated sense to the hemianæstheticside, holds good. For example, the commonest visualhallucinations (in which black and red play a leadingpart) are black rats, cats, snakes, and spiders, shiningstars, fiery spheres, and so on. But these do not remain motionless. Either they go diagonally acrossthe patient's field of vision, in which case they proceed from the hemianæsthetic side; or else ( generally)they come from behind the patient, hasten past,and disappear in the distance. In this case also theapparitions occur on the hemianæsthetic side. Auditory hallucinations also show a decided preferencefor this side, and the same law is said to hold trueof those of the tactile sense.2 These premonitoryhallucinations haunt the sufferer even by day, but inthe night they become much more persistent and vivid,and what was only a passing vision before, developsinto a long scene, in which the patient is called uponto take a part. Often these scenes are of an eroticnature, and are followed by extreme exhaustion.³1 Charcot, Le Progrès Médical ( 1878) , No. 3, p. 38.2 Paul Richer, Études clin. sur la grande hystérie ou hystéro- épilepsie( 1885), pp. 8 et seq.: " Gl (right- side anæsthetic) sees loathsomeblack rats, which glide past her on the right side. Once a great black catsprang into her lap. While walking alone she hears a voice calling her,she turns round, there is no one. While she is at her work familiarvoices speak in her ear. She hears them on both sides, but chiefly onthe right. Suddenly she feels herself embraced. It is noteworthythat she feels the kiss only on the right cheek."3 In the same way, the onanistic act in hysteria may be accompaniedby vivid hallucinations. Compare Schrenck- Notzing, Die Suggestions- Therapie, etc. , p. 70.36HALLUCINATIONSIn Charcot's four typical phases of the "greathysteria," hallucinations are unknown in the epileptic phase, but they are indicated in the others, andthe last two especially are filled with them. In thethird phase the sensory images are peculiarly vivid.Often past events which exerted an influence on theoutbreak of the disease are represented, more seldompurely imaginary scenes. Pleasing and melancholypictures emerge, now as two separate phases, andagain mingled with each other. The sufferers oftencomplain bitterly that the agreeable side of an attackis constantly shattered by horrible visions. On thewhole, distress preponderates over pleasure. Thesehallucinations are distinguished from the hallucinations ofthe fourth phase, hysterical delirium, by theirregular stereotyped recurrence, and also by the factthat in the delirious phase the scenes of the past aretreated as memories, and it is generally the trivialevents and experiences of the day which furnish forththe hallucinations, though here again random rats,serpents, etc. , are apt to obtrude themselves. Evenafter the attack has passed, many patients believein the objective reality of the hallucinatory scenes.This throws a light on the curious circ*mstance thatmany unhappy wretches, in the times of witchcraft,confessed to all manner of strange sins, and enduredwith stubborn firmness all the pangs of martyrdomrather than renounce belief in their intercourse withthe devil, and their participation in orgies which hadtaken place only in the drama of their hystericalhallucinations.If not reckoned as true chorea, the epidemic of dancingwhich raged in Germany and the Netherlands in the Middle1 Richer, op. cit. , p. 120.AND ILLUSIONS. 37Ages comes under this head. Appearing in Aix in 1374, itspread in a few months to Liège, Utrecht, and the neighbouring towns, visited Metz, Cologne, and Strasburg ( 1418) ,and after lingering into the sixteenth century gradually died out. This malady consisted in convulsions, hallucinations,dancing with contortions, and so on. The attack could bechecked by bandaging the abdomen, as well as by kicks andblows on that part of the body. Music had a great influenceon the dancers, and for this reason music was played in thestreets in order that the attacks might by this means reach acrisis and disappear the sooner. Quite trifling circ*mstancescould bring on these seizures, the sight of pointed shoes forinstance, and of the colour red, which the dancers held inhorror. In order to prevent such outbreaks the wearing ofpointed shoes was forbidden by the authorities. During theirdance many of the afflicted thought they waded in blood, orsaw heavenly visions. Of a similar nature was the mad tarantula dance of Italy which appeared about the same time.To this category also belongs the history of demoniacal possession. The belief of being possessed by spirits, frequent y metwith in isolated cases, appeared at certain periods in epidemicform. Such an epidemic broke out in Brandenburg, and inHolland and Italy, in the sixteenth century, especially in theconvents. In 1350-60 it attacked the convent of St. Brigitta,in Xanthen, a convent near Cologne, and others. The nunsdeclared that they were visited by the devil, and had carnalconversation with him. These and other " possessed " wretcheswere sometimes thrown into dungeons, sometimes burnt. Theconvent of the Ursulines at Aix was the scene of such a drama( 1609-11 ) , where two possessed nuns, tormented by all kinds ofapparitions, accused a priest of witchcraft, on which charge hewas burnt to death. The famous case of the nuns of Loudun(1632-39) led to a like tragic conclusion , as well as the Louviercase ( 1642), in which the two chief victims found their end inlifelong imprisonment and the stake. (See on this point, Richer,loc. cit., pp. 797 et seq. )¹ Calmeil, De lafolie ( 1845).2 Pilet de la Menardière, La Démonomanie de Loudun ( 1634) , alsothe Histoire des Diables de Loudun ( Amsterdam, 1740); Gabr. Legué,Urbain Grandier et les Possédées de Loudun ( 1880).38HALLUCINATIONSEcstasy. It is but a step from hallucinations ofthis description to those of ecstasy. Brierre de Boismont, Piesse, and others, distinguish between morbidand physiological ecstasy, the latter occurring only inrare instances—in the cases of prophets, saints, andphilosophers, for instance. Michéa, Baillarger, andMoreau describe it as always a pathological phenomenon, and Charcot, Richer, and others relate itwith hysteria, especially with the third phase of thehystero-epileptic attack. Hallucinations are a constant phenomenon of ecstasy, where they ariseout of one- sided mental activity and intense concentration on single groups of ideas, conjoinedwith lowered sensibility. The best known cases arethose of religious ecstasy, but religious ideas do notinvariably furnish the material for " ecstatic vision. ”Philosophers, artists, and others whose habit of mindtends to deepen certain channels of thought, are alsoliable to such visitations. Any and every object oflonging or desire, no matter how trivial, grotesque, orperverse, may become the object of ecstasy.2 Owingto the persistent euphoria associated with this state,and the ease with which the psychical processes act,ecstatic visions and hallucinations are almost invariably of an agreeable nature. The subjects ofthese experiences mourn the short duration of theirhappiness, and tell with rapture of the heavenly blissand unspeakable delight which they enjoy, of the1 Michéa, " Extase, " in the N. D. de Méd. et de Chir. Prat.2 Spitta, Der Schiaf. u. die Traumzustände d. Menschl. Seele, p. 123.Considering how deeply religion is rooted in the mind of the child,and also that hypermnesia is usually attributed to somnambulic states,and that in the third phase of the hystero- epileptic attack visions fromthe past play a leading part, the frequent occurrence of religious ecstasyin persons otherwise indifferent to religion is not to be wondered at.AND ILLUSIONS. 39wondrous visions vouchsafed to them, and the converse they have held with angelic visitors. Sometimes, indeed, they speak of awful phantoms. Thefamous Emanuel Swedenborg was privileged to behold God himself. Engelbrecht relates how he wascarried by the Holy Spirit through space to the gatesof hell, and then borne in a golden chariot up intoheaven, where he saw choirs of saints and angels.singing round the throne, and received a messagefrom God, delivered to him by an angel. The manyfamiliar examples of ecstatic visions in the Old andNew Testaments may be cited, as well as those foundin the legends of the saints and martyrs, where theyeither appear as revelations from heaven or temptations of the devil. In the latter case the close connection of religious ecstasy with sexual disturbance isindicated.¹ Legendary lore and the sacred books ofall nations teem with revelations and visions, and profane history furnishes us with a series of such examples(the Crusades, Joan of Arc, etc. ). Even in our owntime-besides the cases to be found in asylums-an"ecstatic maid" sometimes makes her appearance hereand there, exercising a powerful effect upon the mindsof small, and sometimes even of large communities.

Among the great number of cases reported those of Marie de Moerl and Louise Lateau are the most celebrated. Theformer passed her life in continual contemplation of the life and sufferings of Christ. Her visions were indicated by her attitude and the expression of her countenance. Thus at Christmastime she seemed to hold the new-born babe in her arms, atEpiphany she worshipped it on her knees, enacting the adoration of the Magi, and on Holy Thursday she attended themarriage of Cana, etc. She also represented the Passion anddeath on the cross. Louise Lateau related that at the beginning¹ Krafft- Ebing, Psychop. sexual, p. 91.40 HALLUCINATIONSof the ecstasy there appeared to her a great and blinding light,and soon after certain forms became visible to her eyes, and thevarious scenes of the Passion passed in order before her. Shewould describe them briefly, but with singular clearness. Shebeheld the Saviour, whose person, garments, wound prints,cross, and crown of thorns she described. He took no noticeof her, she said, neither looked at her nor spoke. She describedwith the same terse clearness the folk about him, apostles,holy women, and Jews.¹

Among Eastern and primitive peoples, such asHindoos, American Indians, natives of Greenland,Kamtschatka and Yucatan, fetish- worshipping Negroes, and Polynesians, the ecstatic state, accompaniedwith hallucinations, is frequently observed , sometimesarising spontaneously, but more often artificially induced. It was also known among the nations ofantiquity. The means most often employed toinduce this state are beating of magic drums andblowing on trumpets, howlings and hour- longprayers, dancing, flagellation, convulsive movementsand contortions, asceticism, fasting, and sexual abstinence. Recourse is also had to narcotics to bringabout the desired result. Thus the fly agaric² is usedby the inhabitants of Tunguska (Western Siberia), inSan Domingo the herb coca, tobacco by some tribesof American Indians, and in the East opium, andhaschisch, a preparation of Indian hemp. Even theancient Egyptians had their intoxicating drinks, and

¹ Dr. F. Lefebvre, Louise Lateau; compare also Dr. Bourneville,Science et miracle: Louise Lateau ou la stigmatisée belge; Warlomont,Rapport méd. sur la stigmatisée de Bois d'Haine; CharbonnierDebatty, Maladies et facultés diverses des mystiques; H. Boëns,Nouvelles de Louise Lateau; Gluge in the Gaz. hbdm., 1875 , 23;Crocq in the Gaz. hbdm. , 1875, 27, 29, 37; Semal, Etude sur lesstigmatisées, etc.; Denneux in the Presse méd. , xxvii. 34.2 Amushroom common in Kamtschatka and Siberia.AND ILLUSIONS. 41receipts for witches' salves and philtres have comedown to us from mediæval times.¹Hallucinations in States ofIntoxication. -The caseswe have just noted lead us on to those hallucinations which occur without any initiatory phase ofpsychical exaltation, in states of simple intoxication.To discuss all the various intoxicants and comparetheir effects would lead us too far and involve needless repetitions, I shall therefore confine myself hereto the more important.The form of inebriation best known to us is thatwhich follows on the inordinate consumption ofalcoholic liquor. The illusions characteristic of thisstate are to be explained for the most part in themanner indicated in Chapter I. The hallucinations.associated with them are generally of a depressingnature, and terrifying impressions predominate. True,sweet voices are sometimes heard, melodies delightthe ear, and fair landscapes appear before the eyes,but this seldom lasts long, monsters and serpents takethe place of flowers, and the visions shift about andare mingled together. Vermin, reptiles, etc. , appearin great numbers, such for instance as the rats , ² cats,snakes, mice, and monkeys which fill the visions¹ Schrenck- Notzing, Ueber Suggestion und suggestive Zustände,a lecture delivered before the Anthropol. Gesellsch. , Munich, 1893;Prosper Alpin, De medicina Aegyptiorum; P. Radestock, Schlaf undTraum ( 1879), pp. 29 et seq.; Julius Thomsen, " Die Berauschungsmittelder Menschen," Oppenh. Zeitschr . , xliv. 2 and 4 ( 1850); B. Seeman inthe Pham Journ. and Trans. , Oct. 1851; M. Perty, Die mystischenErscheinungen d. menschl. Natur. ( 2nd edit. ) , vol. i. pp. 90, 91 .2 It has been plausibly suggested that the legend of Bishop Hatto,who vainly sought refuge in the " Mouse-tower " on the Rhine fromthe rats and mice which swarmed about him, might be referred to suchan origin. Certainly from rats of this phantom breed neither streamnor tower can defend.42HALLUCINATIONSof delirium tremens.¹ Thus Brierre de Boismont2found among twenty- one cases-three of them severe-twenty in which hallucinations of vermin and suchcreatures were seen swarming over the bed and upthe walls.3 Other sensory delusions of a purelyfantastic nature are not lacking. Sometimes blackmen appear who grimace and threaten, then climbthe walls, or vanish up the chimney. In other casesthe visions arise out of the daily occupations of thepatient, or out of his past experience.The patient " peers into all the corners and behind the doors,lifts imaginary objects from the ground, shakes them and throwsthem down again, stamps and scrapes with his foot on the¹ Similar results are reported from the abuse of cocain , salicylic acid,etc. Compare Krafft- Ebing, Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie, pp. 218 et seq.2 Des hallucinations, p. 174.3 Günsburg opposes this view, " Ueber Delirium potatorum, "Günsb. Zeitschr. , ii . 4 ( 1851 ) , and maintains that in at least 30 percent. of such cases only " subjective phenomena occur which are tobe compared with " creeping of the skin. " The visual hallucinations(which according to Wolff, Annalen d. Charité zu Berlin, 1850, alsooccur as forerunners of delirium tremens) are explained as an illusoryperception of various entoptic phenomena by C. G. Chaddock in theAlienist and Neurologist, Jan. 1892. He holds that the visual delusionscaused by perverse perception, which are constant and almost pathognomonic phenomena of alcoholic delirium , take the form of animals becausethe entoptic processes generally imply movements ( e.g. , the pulsations ofthe blood- vessels in the retina) , and for us the idea of moving objectsis almost inseparably associated with living creatures. Hoppe, indeed ,has denied any appearance of independent movement in entoptic phenomena, except their darting into the field of vision. But if thesudden darting of entoptical phenomena into the field of vision and theirswift disappearance be admitted, Chaddock's view and Hoppe's observations are really in accord. Be it noted that Truchsess hadalready inferred (" Ueber Delirium tremens, " Würt. Corresp. - Blatt,1844, No. 39) from the uniformity of the delirium in such cases, andfrom the fact that the sufferer's attention might be diverted from hisdelirious visions, that one of the lower centres was affected in the firstcase, causing a secondary implication of the higher centres.AND ILLUSIONS. 43ground as though crushing an insect, brushes his hand over hisface and attempts to blow away cobwebs and hairs which hefeels about him. Suddenly he claps his hand to his thigh andpinches his trousers hard, in order, as he says, to crush a hugeblack spider which is crawling up him. He hears hisfriends and calls to them-hears their voices raised in altercation . . . and endeavours to hasten to them. . . . Now hisright hand approaches his knees, which are drawn together andslightly raised. He imagines he is holding a pigeon on hisknee and feeding it with grain. Then he thinks he is in themarket-place, and shouts to the crowd of folk. He sees mendressed like savages defile past him on a rope. " In anothercase the victim " seeks to escape his enemies by flying to thewoods. He hears the noise of waterfalls round him, then seesthe town hall all lighted up, hears music and singing and seespanoramas. Red lanterns swing from the trees, he runs, heflees, and all these phantasmagoria follow him. Crosses appearto him and sparks of light. .." He tells how he heard voicesurging him to suicide. "The waterfalls called to me and said,'You are too cowardly to throw yourself in,' " 2 etc.·1Dreams of flames and conflagrations are a frequentresult of the abuse of alcohol. They are generally ofa visual nature, but sometimes the other senses sharein them. Thus Weber relates in his Demokritos thatafter a punch-party such a fire -dream visited him inthe form of an auditory hallucination: "I thought Iheard the fire-alarm and ran to the window, annoyedat not hearing the sound of the fire-hose," and so on.The effect of absinth in producing sensory deliriumis very similar, but its unmixed action can seldom beobserved, as the absinth drinker of course imbibes thealcohol which is mixed with the liqueur, and generallyindulges in other spirituous drinks as well. But herealso fiery visions, rats, serpents, etc., are reported, as1 Magnan, De l'alcoolisme, des diverses formes du délire alcoolique et de leur traitement ( Paris, 1874), p. 49.2 Ibid. , p. 75.44 HALLUCINATIONSwell as auditory hallucinations of a startling andterrifying nature.¹ The same is true of atropin- intoxication (red-vision after many eye - operations²), and ofbelladonna. Datura stramonium produces distressingvisions and dreams, associated with feelings of oppression³ and vertigo; crowds dance round thesufferer, and seek to whirl him away in their aimlessmovements. Robbers and murderers try to kill him;a thousand hideous faces and gigantic forms encirclehim. Boerhaave, on the other hand, states thatsmall doses of belladonna and datura stramoniuminduce erotic visions and hallucinations. The sensorydelusions following on the use of the fly agaric5 are ofa depressing nature, and this is also true of thoseappearing in mercury and lead- poisoning."In the intoxication produced by chloroform, which isspecially rapid in its effects ( Kraepelin), the hallucinations are of an unpleasant nature. Those accompanying ether- intoxication, on the other hand, are1 Ibid. , pp. 87 and 116.2 Hilbert, Klin. Monatsblätter f. Augenheilk, xxiv. p. 483; seeabove, p. 8, Note 2.3 Spitta, op. cit., p. 282,4 Brierre de Boismont, Des hall. , p . 446. Compare Delasiauve in the Rev. med. (Dec. 1850) .5 Brierre de Boismont, op. cit. , p. 448, Note.6 Kussmaul, Untersuchungen über den constanten Mercurialismus( 1861 ) , p. 266; Emminghaus, Allg. Psychopathol. ( 1878 ) , p. 369.7 Boureau in Ann. méd. -psych. ( 1854); Popp in Bayer. ärztl.Int.-Bl. , xxi. 38, p. 357; Bottentuit in L'Union ( 1873 ) , 151; Würt.Corresp. - Bl. , xliii . 38 ( 1873 ); Bartens, " Geisteskrankh. nach Bleivergift. ," Allg. Zeitschr. f. Psych. , xxxii. 1; Em. Régis in Ann. méd.-psych. (Sept. 1880) .8 Spitta, op. cit. , p. 282: " The power of feeling pain is destroyed bychloroform, butthe remnant of the purely ideational element is sufficientto produce analogous mental images. " Compare the case described indetail by Spencer in his Principles of Psychology, appendix to vol. i .AND ILLUSIONS. 45said to be highly pleasurable.¹ The action of haschisch, smoked by the Persians, or drunk in the form of"majoun," consumed by the Turks in the form of asweetmeat mixed with almonds ( damawesk), or mixedwith brandy (iraki), in Algiers made into a paste withhoney (madjund) , and to which many other peoplesare passionately addicted, has been exhaustivelyinvestigated by Moreau, besides other observers.2Among the eight phenomena of haschisch intoxication(called by the Arabs " kief" ) reported by him, we finddelirious visions and intensely pleasurable sensations. But these blissful feelings are by no meansundisturbed. Terror and dismay break in upon thedreamer, ³ and the inevitable rats, etc. , make their appearance. Generally speaking, however, the sensorydelusions of this narcotic are of a pleasurable nature,glimpses of paradise, heavenly bliss, etc.5 Coloursoften appear preternaturally bright and vivid. Apeculiarity of haschisch-delirium is the perpetually recurring conviction of the unreality of the hallucinatorydrama.1 Dieffenbach, Der Æthergegen den Schmerz ( 1847). According toRicher, op. cit. , hystero- epileptics are thrown into the third phase of the"grande hystérie " by the inhalation of æther; Bones ( of Nîmes) , onthe other hand, observed ( Gaz. des Hôp. , 1861 ) the calming effect produced by it in hysterical convulsions; C. A. Ewald, " Ein Ætherathmer," Berl. Klin. Wochenschr. , 1875, 11 .2 Moreau, Du Haschisch et de l'Aliénation mentale, 1845.3 Brierre de Boismont, op. cit. , pp. 444 et seq.4 Moreau, op. cit. , pp. 84 et seq.5 A celebrated instance is the influence of haschisch on the Islamiteorder of Abdallah Megalis el Hiemit, the members of which enjoyedthe pleasures of paradise in their ecstasies , and urged thereby to afanatical courage, became a terror to Christendom.6 Moreau, op. cit.; Schrenck- Notzing, " Die Bedeutung narcotischer Mittel f. d. Hypnose, " Schriften d. Ges. f. psych. Forsch. , i.pp. 57, 58. Polli in St. Andrews Med. Grad. Assoc. Trans. , iii. p. 90,46HALLUCINATIONSSantonin is found to produce chiefly delusions oftaste and smell, and with cinchona (Peruvian bark)auditory hallucinations predominate, though othersensory fallacies also occur.2 Hallucinations of anerotic nature are attributed to opium, but whenhabitual indulgence has rendered it a necessity, andthe dose must be continually increased, a frightfulperiod of torment commences. Similarly, nitrousoxide ("laughing-gas") tends to produce hallucinationsof an erotic nature-a fact which perhaps may helpto explain the many charges brought against dentists,afterwards proved to be unfounded.These details, which accord with the usual viewof the subject, must nevertheless be supplementedby pointing out that the specific action of thepoison, which indeed frequently produces quitereports that subjects who had taken haschisch felt as though one half oftheir ego were sensible while the other half raved like a fool, and theywere conscious of a like condition in their neighbours. Gauthier, Étudeclinique sur l'absynthisme chronique ( 1882) , says the intoxication is notcontinuous, " it seizes you and lets you go again, lifts you up to heavenand carries you back to earth, and that without any gradual transition. ”For further information on the subject see Rech in Journ. de Montp.(Dec. 1847 ); Dorvault in Bull. de therap. ( Oct. 1848); Moreau inGaz. de Hôp. ( 1856); Ch. Judée, ibid. ( 1855) , 70; Schroff, WienerWochenbl. ( 1857 ) , 40, 41; W. Watts Campbell in Med. Times andGaz. ( 1863 ); Kuijkendael in Philad. Med. and Surg. Rep. , xxxii.( 1875) , p. 421; Freusberg, Ueber die Sinnestäuschungen im Hanfrausch; N. Lange, " Ueber die Wirkung des Haschisch, psych.Bem. ," Fragen d. Psych. u. Phil. , i. ( 1889).1 A. Mayer, Die Sinnestäuschungen, Hallucinationen und Illusionen(1869), p. 108; W. Preyer, Diefünf Sinne des Menschen ( 1879) , p. 66.2 Briquet, comp. Dietl in Wien. Wochenschr. ( 1852) , 47-50.3 Thomas de Quincey, Confessions of an English Opium- Eater,describes his sensations as follows:-" And now came a tremendouschange. . . Hitherto the human face had often mixed in my dreams,but not despotically nor with any special power of tormenting. Butnow that affection which I have called the tyranny of the human faceAND ILLUSIONS. 47opposite effects upon the mind, is only one of thefactors in the building up of sensory delusions.Another consists, as we shall point out, in the sensoryimpressions to which the intoxicated subject is exposed. He assimilates these in the same way thata sleeper assimilates them, as we shall see when wecome to discuss dreams. That is to say, he eitherapprehends them to start with through a veil ofillusion, or he perceives them correctly, but buildsupon them a hallucinatory superstructure.But the most important factor must, after all, bethe personal reaction. This is broadly indicated bythe fact that, while one individual may appear innowise affected, another under the influence of thesame narcotic may become delirious and experiencebegan to unfold itself . now it was that upon the rocking watersof the ocean the human face began to reveal itself; the sea appearedpaved with innumerable faces upturned to the heavens, faces imploring, wrathful, despairing, faces that surged upwards by thousands,by myriads, by generations: infinite was my agitation; my mind tossed,as it seemed, upon the billowy ocean, and weltered upon the weltering waves."... It appeared to me that I was in bed and had awakened . Inleaning on my hand in order to adjust my pillow, something soft seemed to give way beneath it. It was a corpse stretched by my side.I was, however, neither alarmed nor astonished. I took it in my armsand carried it into an adjoining room, saying to myself: ' I will lay it there on the floor; it is impossible that it can come in again, if I takethe key out of the door. ' Upon that I slept again, and was again aroused. It was by the noise of an opening door; and this idea filledme with a horrible sensation . Then I saw the same dead body come in which I had carried away. Its action was singular; it was that of aman whose bones had been taken out, and who, in his endeavoursto support himself by his pliant, flexible muscles, was ready to fall at each step. However, it succeeded in reaching me, and stretched itselfupon me. It then became a horrible nightmare, inexpressibly disgusting; for, besides the weight of the formless mass, a pestilential odour arose from the kisses with which it covered me, " and so on.REESE LIBRARYOF THEUNIVERSITYOF CALIFORNIA48HALLUCINATIONShallucinations; and is shown further in the development of the sensory delusions, which may assumedifferent forms, with similar narcotics and like sensoryinfluences, according to the idiosyncrasy of the percipient and the feeling of the moment. "When weexpose two individuals at the same moment to thesame influence," says Schleiermacher, " the result willbe different in each case, and the cause of the difference will be not merely that each perceives somethingdifferent, but that each has his individual way ofassimilating to his mental organism the raw materialsupplied from without, and that this mental organismis different in every case. " For instance, a pessimistbeing easily depressed inclines towards melancholydelusions, or a person of erotic tendencies will behaunted by voluptuous visions. It is not improbablethat opium and haschisch owe their reputation to thefact that they are the narcotics of the Orientals. Inthe course of our inquiry we shall return to deal morefully with the influence of this factor on the development of fallacious perception.Fallacies ofPerception in acute Somatic Disorders.-With the hallucinations already considered , thoseappearing in the course of acute somatic diseases, andas a result of them, seem naturally to be classed.¹Here, as in the delirious states associated with intoxication, the swarming ofthe hallucinations is character1 Compare, for this section, E. Mendel, " Die Psychosen im Gefolge acuter somatischer Erkrankungen, " Deutsch. med. Zeitschr. , vii. 19(1880); idem, "Das Delirium acutum," Berl. Klin. Wochenschrift (1894 ) , No. 24; E. Kraepelin, " Ueber den Einfluss acuter Krankheiten auf die Entstehung von Geisteskrankheiten , " Arch. f. Psych.,xi. , xii.; F. C. Müller, Ueber psych. Erkrank. bei acuten fieberhaften Krankheiten ( Diss . Kiel, 1881 ); G. Aschaffenburg, Allg. Ztschr.f. Psych. , LII. , i . p . 75AND ILLUSIONS. 49istic. This resemblance is not accidental. Indeedthe delirious states of somatic disease may, in part atleast, be referred to intoxication. But of no lessimportance are the rise of temperature, acceleration of metabolic processes, and disturbances of circulation in the brain cavity (first, active hyperæmia;later, in enfeebled action of the heart, venous stasis) ,the importance of which is indicated in typhus, forinstance, by the parallelism between the violence ofthe delirium and the temperature curve. The initialhallucinatory visions of typhus, small-pox, and intermittent fever, occurring before the other causeshave had time to act, are on the other hand to beattributed to the direct influence of the specific virusof the fever, as also the afebrile delusions, sometimesoccurring in intermittent fever in place of the feverattack, and the visual and auditory hallucinationswhich are observed in small- pox between the eruptivefever and the fever of the suppurating stage.Hallucinations also occur in the decline of the じdisease, during the period of convalescence.¹ Firstthey appear singly, in association with those of thefever, and are often recognised by the patient assuch and concealed from those around him. Butsoon they overmaster the sufferer, and deliriousstates are developed, or states resembling hallucinatory insanity, in which visions of corpses,death's- heads, mocking voices, and offensive olfactoryand gustatory hallucinations play a part.Of anequally distressing nature are most of the sensoryfallacies of collapse- delirium, and those which sometimes precede death. In tuberculosis, on the otherhand, they are often of an agreeable nature, cor-¹ Thore in Ann. méd. -psych. , April 1856; ibid. , 1860, p. 168.450 HALLUCINATIONSresponding to the euphoria which is so characteristicof this disease.Sensory Delusions of the Dream - state. -We nowpass to fallacies of perception in sleep and dreams,which even in olden times, by reason of theirfrequency and their universal range, could not fail.to arouse curiosity and offer occasion for manifold hypotheses.¹ Their importance in ethnology hasbeen fully vindicated by Radestock.2 According tothe usual classification, they are divided into hallucinations, or dreams induced by association of ideas,and illusions, or dreams induced by nerve stimulation(Spitta). In the first case their content is said to beformed from images which attain prominence becausethe emotions, ideas, and perceptions which dominate¹ Leaving out of account the great mass of older literature, the following works appear to me important for the elucidation of the subject:-Macnish, The Philosophy of Sleep ( 1830); Jan, Der Schlaf ( 1836); ·Purkinje, "Wachen, Schlaf, Träume und verwandte Zustände, " inWagner's Handwörterb. d. Physiologie ( 1846); Buchholz, Ueber denSchlafund die verwandten Zustände desselben; Lemoine, Du sommeilau point de vue physiol. et psychol. ( 1855 ); Maury, Du sommeil et desrêves; also, “ De certains faits , etc. , ” Ann. méd -psych. ( 1857, April);Jessen, Versuch einer wissenschaftlichen Begründung der Psycholog.( 1855) , II . Abschn. 2 , Cap. 1; Scherner, Das Leben des Traumes ( 1861 );Jensen, Träume und Denken; van Erk, Ueber den Unterschied vonTraum und Wachen ( 1874); L. Strümpell, Natur und Entstehungder Träume ( 1874); Volkelt, Die Traumphantasie ( 1875); Hildebrandt, Der Traum undseine Verwerthungfürs Leben ( 1875 ); Siebeck,Ueher Schlafund Traum ( 1877); C. Binz, Ueber den Traum ( 1878);Siebert, Ueber Schlaf und Traum ( 1878 ); Giessler, Aus den Tiefen desTraumlebens. But the most useful of all are: Spitta, Die Schlaf- undTraum-zustände der menschlichen Seele ( 2 Auflage 1892 ) , and especiallyP. Radestock, Schlaf und Traum ( 1879); Delbœuf," Le sommeil etles rêves," in the Rev. philosoph. ( 1879-80); Weygandt, Entstehungder Träume ( 1893 ); and Mourly- Vold, " Expériences sur les Rêves, "Revue de l'Hypnotisme, Jan. 1896.2 Op. cit. , Cap. I.AND ILLUSIONS. 51the consciousness during the waking state are blottedout, allowing the ideas kept under by them, and longstruggling to arise, to emerge above the threshold ofconsciousness-a process which Aristotle comparesto the emergence of a frog frozen in the ice, andRadestock to the appearance of the stars after sunset.Often, it is said, old memories (from youth's " goldenage ") or wishes, still active, or cherished long ago,are realised in these visions.One individual re-visited in a dream the playground of hisyouth and his youth's companions. Shortly after he returnedin the flesh to his native place, from which he had been absentfor many years, and reported that he found everything as it hadappeared to him in the dream, except that his friends had grownolder. A man- servant, who had failed to attain his cherishedambition of becoming a soldier, was consoled by dreams ofmilitary glory, and while by day he blacked boots, by night hecommanded a regiment.¹To this class ( Spitta's Associationsträume) belongmany of the dreams which reveal things of which wewere not conscious whilst awake.Thus Maury dreamed of the, to him, unknown town, Mussidan, and that some one told him it was in the department of Dordogne. On waking he looked it up, and found that his dreaminformant was correct. Abercrombie² tells how a friend of his,who was employed as cashier in a Glasgow bank, was enabledthrough information received in a dream to correct an error oflong standing, for which he had vainly sought to account in making up his books at the close of the year. He also gives anothercase in which a father appeared to his son in a dream, andnamed a witness who could testify to a certain payment madeby him before his death. For this sum the son was then beingprosecuted, and though he was convinced that the claim was1 Radestock, op. cit. , p. 138.2 Abercrombie, Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers, pp.280-288.52 HALLUCINATIONSunjust, he had hitherto failed to find any proof in his favour.But the apparition mentioned a trifling circ*mstance which hadoccurred in connection with the payment, and which laterproved to be of great importance, for the witness had forgottenall about the transaction till the mention of this little incidentcalled up the whole scene to his mind.Professor Reubold ( of Würzburg) tells of a young betrothedcouple who, after hastily clearing the table in order to write animportant letter, found that a watch which had been lying onthe table had disappeared. All search proved fruitless, but aweek later the man dreamed that it was in the outer breastpocket of the coat he had been wearing at the time, and therethe watch was found.¹It is clear that in all these cases it is not aquestion of new knowledge, but of the emergencein the dream -state of an apparently forgotten impression. We shall encounter such phenomena frequently.Let us now pass to the other group, the illusions( Spitta's Nervenreizträume) brought about by external stimuli which, as in the waking state, reach usthrough all the ordinary channels of sense. Perhaps,as the eyes are closed, they reach us on the wholeless through the visual sense, yet lightning, moonlight, and sunlight not infrequently exercise aninfluence on the imagery of our dreams.Krauss 2 relates that he once caught himself, on waking, in anamorous attitude, with his arms stretched out towards theopposite window, in which the image of his absent mistressappeared. When fully awake, this image resolved itself into thefull moon. Scherner dreamed once, when the morning sunstreamed into his room, that a fiery dragon was rushing uponhim. Suddenly the dragon retreated, and on waking he found1 Taken from the Münchner Neuest. Nachrichten ( 1896) , No. 138.2 Krauss, Der Sinn im Wahnsinn.AND ILLUSIONS. 53that clouds had hidden the sun. Weygandt dreamed of " livingpictures " suddenly seen in a blaze of magnesium light. In thiscase the morning sun had just broken through the clouds.Besides these external influences acting on the eye,changes taking place in the visual organ itself are tobe noted. I pass them over here, however, as weshall encounter them later on, when we cometo discuss the theory of hallucination.The sensory stimuli which reach us through theear are of great importance in the formation ofdream- images.The banging of a door or the noise of an overturned chairmay involve us in a dream- duel, ending in the loud report of apistol. When a child, Maury fell asleep one day of great heat,and dreamed that his head lay on an anvil and was beingsmitten with a blacksmith's hammer; yet it was not crushed;it melted away to water. On awaking he found himself bathedin sweat, and heard from the neighbouring smithy the sound ofthe blacksmith's hammer. Weygandt dreamed on a railwayjourney, when the engine whistled, of a girl who was screamingand crying shrilly because she was being scolded. " Betweensleeping and waking this morning I perceived a dog runningabout in a field ( an ideal white and tan sporting dog, etc. ) , andthe next moment I heard a dog barking outside the window.Keeping my closed eyes on the vision , I found that it came andwent with the barking of the dog outside."LThe part played in building up dream-images bythe two senses of smell and taste is not so easyto indicate. While visual stimuli in far the greaternumber of cases give rise to visual hallucinations,and noises, etc. , generally induce hallucinations ofhearing, it rarely happens that the dreams whichspring from olfactory and gustatory stimuli bear anyqualitative relation to their exciting causes. Thus1 Phantasms of the Living, i. p. 474.54 HALLUCINATIONSstrong odours, flower- scents, heavily perfumed handkerchiefs or soap, have an unpleasant effect upon thedreamer, causing oppressed breathing, with its accompanying dreams, but seldom give rise to perceptsnormally associated with such scents. These do,however, sometimes occur, as in the case of theindividual who directed his servant to sprinkle hispillow sometimes after he was asleep (leaving thechoice of the particular night to the servant) with aperfume which he had only used during a certainstay in the country, but to which he had then takena great fancy. On those nights he visited again inhis dreams the scenes associated in his mind with theperfume. The occurrence of imaginary tastes andsmells in dreams is very rare, so much so that it hasbeen altogether denied by many observers. Still afew cases have been reported.¹Sensations of pressure, temperature, and of thecutaneous sensibility in general are among the chiefcauses of dreams.The bedcover pressing on the arm is embraced as a mistress,or felt as a heavy weight; a dream of being impaled, that is tosay, of standing on a stake, the point of which was thrust throughthe foot, has been known to arise from the pressure of a strawlodged between the toes; a covering which has slipped to theground is sometimes a source of great embarrassment, when itcauses us to dream of appearing half clad in the street or at asocial gathering; or it may call up visions of skating, Alpinetravels, Polar expeditions, and these again may suddenly end inthe feeling offalling into a gulf, due to a slight alteration of thesleeper's position in bed. Gregory, when he had a hot-water1 Sully, Illusions ( 1881 ) , p . 144. In the case quoted by Weygandt,op. cit. , pp. 47 et seq. , the olfactory stimulus was perceived objectively,and therefore can hardly be called an olfactory dream .2 Savage, op. cit. , p. 129.AND ILLUSIONS. 55bottle at his feet, dreamed that he was climbing Etna andwalking on hot lava. Purkinje says: " If our hand has becomenumb by pressure, in the dream- state it may appear as something strange and gruesome touching us, and if the whole sideis affected, we imagine that a strange bedfellow, whom wecannot get rid of, is stretched beside us. ” ¹Besides arising out of these and similar externalinfluences, our dreams often spring from feelingsconnected with the bodily organs themselves, for inthe dream-state the " organic sense " of our wakinglife is split up into its constituent parts, and separatefeelings due to slight irregularities or disturbances ofthe functions easily become elements in the dreamconsciousness.2 Thus, for example, the dream ofhaving a tooth extracted may originate in an incipient toothache, which perhaps twenty-four hourslater may become sufficiently intense to affect thewaking consciousness. Irregularity of the heart'saction, difficulty in breathing, an uncomfortable1 According to J. Mourly-Vold, " Expériences sur les Rêves, etc. ,"Revue de l'Hypnotisme, Jan. 1896, the influence of position during sleepis generally exhibited in one of the following ways:-( 1 ) The positionof a member may be perceived more or less correctly, but suggest anattitude; for instance, if the foot is stretched and bent back it suggeststhe dream of standing on tip- toe to reach something; ( 2) the strainedposition may be taken to be part of a movement, and the dreamer seemto be dancing on his toes; ( 3 ) the movements may appear to be executedby some one else; (4 ) sometimes the movements seem to be impeded;( 5) the affected member may be changed in the dream into some animalor inanimate object of analogous form; (6) sometimes the dream- perception of the member gives rise to abstract ideas, which it symbolises;for instance, the perception of several fingers may give rise to dreams of numbers and calculations.2 Of these constituent parts in relation to the character of dreams,Weygandt has experimentally investigated sensations of fatigue, indigestion , fulness of the bladder, free and restricted breathing, the circulation, and the sense of equilibrium. The influence of sexualexcitation could also Le easily proved.56HALLUCINATIONSposition, and errors of diet are the not infrequentcauses of distressing dreams.Thus Herrmann, when suffering from an attack of colic,dreamed that his abdomen was opened, and an operationperformed on the sympathetic nerve. Others dream of goingup for examinations. The house-wife dreams she is giving aparty, and that all her dainties are burnt up, and so on.To the causes just mentioned ( Schech also mentions nasal polypus) is to be referred nightmare¹(also called incubus, succubus, and night- hag), whichhas played no small part in the development ofdæmonology, the belief in vampires, witches, andso on. For naturally the character of the dream.imagery does not depend only on the stimuli whichstarted it, but also on the intellectual and emotionalidiosyncrasies of the dreamer ( Radestock). Accordingly, the dream - images accompanying the stimuli,or rather originated by them, differ widely indifferent persons, and this is also true of the furthersecondary fallacies of perception which associatethemselves with these primary illusions. Generallyspeaking, however, we may assume that in themajority of cases externally associated images are1 M. Strahl, Der Alp, sein Wesen and seine Heilung ( 1833 ) , with abibliography of the older works; Albers, Beobachtungen aufdem Gebierder Pathologie, iii . p . 59 ( 1840); Boerner, Das Alpdrücken, seine Begrün- dung und Verhütung ( 1855 ); Binz, op. cit. In a viva voce communication from Dr. C. F. Müller I obtained the following:-A mediævalsuperstition explained incubus, vampires, etc. , as the fruit of unnaturalintercourse between man and beast, and was formally expressed up tothe beginning of our century by the fact that the legal punishment for this offence, death by fire, was inflicted only when such intercourse wasproved to have been consummated. In such cases the animal was alsoburnt, or otherwise put out of the way, a proceeding partaking more ofthe nature of self- protection than of punishment.AND ILLUSIONS. 57reproduced, even when such pronounced cases as thefollowing have to be classed as exceptions.Maury once dreamed that he made a pilgrimage (pélerinage)to Jerusalem , then found himself in the presence of the chemistPelletier, who gave him a shovel (pelle). Another time he dreamed first of kilometres, then of kilograms, the island Gilolo,the flower lobelia, General Lopez, and a party of loto. Anacquaintance once told him that he dreamed he was in the Jardindes Plantes, and there met the traveller Chardin, who gave hima book by JulesJanin.The dependence of dreams on particular stimuli isbest shown by experiments; new conditions may beartificially introduced, and the dream may then becompared with the means employed.¹When water was dropped into the open mouth of a sleeper,he dreamed that he was swimming, and made the correspondingmotions. Alight silk handkerchief laid over the mouth andnose produced the dream of being buried alive. A mustardplaster laid on the head caused the subject to dream of beingscalped by Indians; and so on. "Fallacious Perception in Hypnosis. - Dreams ex1 Self- experiment, and the repetition of the same experiment inorder to induce a dream experienced before under like conditions,is a less trustworthy method. (Compare Spitta, op. cit. , p. 227. ) Thetrain of thought which is started in the waking state, while we arepreparing for the experiment, is likely to act as a pre-hypnoticsuggestion. As examples of this kind of self- suggestion are comparatively rare in the literature of the subject , I venture to cite onehere. Ashoemaker with whom I sometimes experimented begged meto give him a suggestion which would cure him of the bad habit ofoversleeping himself. Although by an oversight the suggestion wasnot given while he was in the hypnotic trance, the pre- hypnotic autosuggestion proved sufficient for the purpose; at least a fortnight laterhe had not once failed to respond to the summons of the early morningbell, which he had not heard for years before.2 Spitta, op. cit. , p. 278; Boerner, op. cit.; Weygandt, op. cit.; and others.58 HALLUCINATIONSperimentally induced during sleep in the mannerabove described lead us naturally to those of thehypnotic state, and indeed they are in some casesnot to be distinguished from them-in cases, that isto say, where in normal sleep the hallucinations correspond directly to distinct verbal suggestions. Theclassic instance is that furnished by Abercrombieof the officers who, by whispering in their sleepingcomrade's ear, made him go through all the incidentsof a duel, from the challenge to the final pistol- shot.Beattie gives similar cases. The numerous examplessupplied by the literature of hypnotism render itsuperfluous to cite further experiments here, forinstances like the above in nowise differ from theordinary phenomena of hypnotic suggestion. Thesuggested hallucinations of hypnosis are to be distinguished, however, from the fallacies of perceptiondiscussed in the preceding paragraph, where thestimulus which is elaborated into a dream-illusion isbut dimly and vaguely felt by the sleeper, where thesound of words addressed to him, for instance, onlyreaches his dreaming ear as a murmur, so that heimagines himself walking by a murmuring stream, oramong trees soughing in the wind. But in the caseswith which we are now concerned, spoken words areclearly distinguished from other sounds, are intelligently perceived, and produce their appropriatedream- images.As, however, this direct dramatic response toverbal suggestion had rarely been observed exceptin hypnosis, and in that state could be very easilyproduced, it came to be regarded as a typical hypnotic phenomenon, and the distinction drawn bySpitta between sleep and hypnosis was generallyAND ILLUSIONS. 59accepted. According to him, " normal " sleep isless pervious to external influences than the alert"artificially induced " state of the hypnotised subject.In the former case, he says, the suggested dreamdepends on the operator only at its commencement,and is continued quite independently by the " automatic action " of the brain.This is no doubt true of the greater number ofsuggested dreams in sleep, for in the first place theexperimenter wishes, as a rule, to study the results ofa single isolated impression, and refrains from confusing it by adding other suggestions, and the furthercourse of the dream is abandoned to the guidance ofcerebral automatism, or becomes modified by incalculable accidents; while, on the other hand, the dreamof the hypnotic subject is generally guided by aseries of suggestions. Secondly, the suggestions givento the normal sleeper have usually been vague andelementary in character (pressure, cold, touch, light,etc.). He interprets these mistakenly, and it isdifficult for the experimenter to guide further a dreamof which he does not know the content. In mosthypnotic experiments definite suggestions are given,and though the subject does indeed develop themin his own way, still the experimenter remains incloser touch with him. Thus the difference is not afundamental one, but is conditioned by the differencein the amount of experimental interference; moreover, there are cases on record , like those cited byAbercrombie and Beattie, where the experimenter1 Spitta, op. cit. , p. 130.22 How important it is for the operator to be in touch with the contentof the subject's dream is shown by Moll, Kapport in der Hypnose,p. 308 (36) , Case 21.60 HALLUCINATIONSwas able to guide as he liked the dream of anormal sleeper.On the other hand, there are cases where the hypnotic dream depends but little on the direct influenceof the operator, when only a vague suggestion is given.Suppose a march is played on the piano without anyverbal suggestion being added, the subject may, aslikely as not, look out of an imaginary window andwatch a phantom band march past with fife and drum.Again, the suggested dream of hypnosis may becarried on by the subject independently. Let theexperimenter but refrain from breaking in with newsuggestions, let him leave the subject to his owndevices, and the opportunity will be afforded him ofwatching the unfolding of a continued dream .This was very well shown in the case of a gardener-lad withwhom I experimented . After a series of experiments, I lefthim to himself for some time smoking a " suggested " pipe,while I noted down my observations. Suddenly he snatchedthis imaginary pipe out of his mouth, made a horrid grimace,and proceeded to spit out imaginary tobacco juice, with signsof lively disgust.Nor is the well- known phenomenon called " déroulement" anything more than a vivid continued dream.It consists in this, that often on a slight and accidentalincitement, and sometimes very much against theintention of the experimenter, a long or shortseries of scenes from a former state of hypnosis areautomatically reproduced.A similar phenomenon is the objectivation des types,when the subject develops a mental delusion suggested by the operator in association with various.hallucinations and illusions which are interwovenwith it.AND ILLUSIONS. 61Furthermore, it is a fact that in hypnosis, exactlyas in sleep, spontaneous hallucinations and illusionsOccur. Sometimes they are so lively, as in the caseof " mediums " and " magnetic" somnambulists, thatthe experimenter ceases to exert any power over themat all; in other cases he may be able to guide themto some extent, and at least he is generally able tobreak the chain of associated ideas at any moment bysuggestion and cause them to disappear. Bernheim.quotes two cases, and though he mentions this typeofsomnambulism but seldom, it is nevertheless to bemet with quite frequently in cases where the experimenter contents himself with watching the course ofa dream which is not " acted out," but which runs onlike the dreams of ordinary sleep, and occurs oftenestwhen the subject is left to himself. On account ofthis tendency of the hypnotic dream to run on,Ringier has urged² that, in the therapeutic practiceof hypnotism, it is unadvisable to leave the patientlong alone without from time to time repeating thecurative suggestion.Generally speaking, the similarity which existsbetween the hallucinations of hypnosis and of sleepextends to those of the post-hypnotic state. Butit should be noted that while in the majorityof cases the appearance of the suggested hallu-¹ Bernheim, De la Suggestion, pp. 64-67 . ( Suggestive Therapeutics.From the French. New York and London, 1889. )2 Ringier, Erfolge des therapeutischen Hypnotismus in der Landpraxis, pp. 95 et seq.3 Though the auto- suggestive continuation and spontaneous origin ofsensory delusions can be so easily observed in hypnosis, it may not be superfluous to emphasize their occurrence here, since Ochorowicz stillthought it necessary to question it in the programme of the Psychophysiological Congress in Paris.62 HALLUCINATIONScination is sufficient to induce a more or lesspronounced hypnoid condition, there are other subjects who, while responding to the suggestion,remain to all appearance in the normal state.¹ Suchcases recall the hallucinations of paranoia, which arealso characterised by the maintenance of consciousness, and here as there the percipient is in nowiseconfused, and while experiencing hallucinations mayperhaps be engaged in a lively conversation withthose around him.Frau U., an innkeeper's wife, 45 years of age, an extremelysuggestible subject ( so much so that while awake a mere assurance that she could not move her limbs deprived her of all powerof movement), was hypnotised by me, and the post- hypnotic suggestion given that each time A., who was present, should cough,a fly would alight on her brow. The hallucination was realised;at each cough of A.'s she raised her hand to her forehead andlooked up into the air as though watching a fly. This didnot prevent her, however, from continuing with animation herconversation with me on the preparations for her daughter'sapproaching marriage. Her prompt reaction to suggestionsgiven in ordinary life rendered her post-hypnotic suggestibility valueless as a test of her state of consciousness.Bernheim communicates the following case of a young girl,of unusual intelligence, and free from hysterical tendency²: —“ Iarranged that on waking she should see an imaginary rose.She saw it, touched and smelt it, and described it to me; butknowing that I might have given her a suggestion, she askedme if the rose was a real or imaginary one, adding that it was quite impossible for her to tell the difference. I told herthat it was imaginary. She believed me, and yet foundthat by no effort of the will could she make it disappear. ‘ Ican still see and touch it,' she said, ' as though it were natural;and if you were to show me a real rose beside it, or instead ofit, I should not be able to tell the one from the other.' All this1 Gurney in the Procee lings of the S.P. R. , 1887; see note, p. 307.2 Bernheim, op. cit. , p. 38.AND ILLUSIONS. 63time she was thoroughly awake, and talked quietly with meabout the apparition. "Crystal- visions.-The class of hallucinations whichwe shall now proceed to discuss, those known as"crystal-visions," ¹ also seem to occur in full normalconsciousness. These visions may be experimentallyinduced as follows. The percipient strives to banishall conscious thought from his mind, and fixes hisgaze continuously on a " Braid's crystal," a burningglass in a dark frame, a glass of water or some similarreflecting object.2 Many persons after gazing thus forsome time begin to see pictures in the crystal, thespire of the parish church perhaps, or familiar faces.The art of crystal-gazing has been practised from very earlytimes. Divination by means of crystals and various reflectingobjects (such as metal mirrors, beryl stones and other gems,vessels containing water, wells and springs, liquid poured intothe palm of the hand, oiled finger- nails, etc. ) was practisedby the Assyrians, Persians, Egyptians, and in Greece, Rome,China, India, and Japan, not to speak of the cup- divinationamong the South Sea Islanders. This art, whose discoveryÆschylus attributed to Prometheus, Cicero to the Assyrians,Zoroaster to Ahriman, and the Fathers of the Church to theFather of Lies, reached its highest development in the sixteenthand seventeenth centuries, and found its exponents among thelearned physicians and mathematicians of the Courts of Elizabeth, the Italian Princes, Catherine de Medici, and the EmperorsMaximilian and Rudolph. As all the various methods of mirror1 Compare " Recent Experiments in Crystal-Vision , " Proceed. oftheSoc. f. Psych. Res. , vol. v. ( 1888-89) , pp. 486 et seq.; Myers, " The Subliminal Consciousness, " id. , vol. viii . ( 1892) , p. 472; Rells,Psychol. Skizzen ( 1893) , p. 1 .2 C. G. Carus reports a case where fixed gazing at the shining lockof a door gave rise to hallucinations.3 For the historical part, see " Recent Experiments, etc.; " Kieseweiter, Faust in der Geschichte und Tradition, etc. ( 1893 ); andMünchen akad. Monatshefte ( 1890) , vol. 78-82 .64HALLUCINATIONSor crystal divination resemble each other closely in many ways,—for instance, in laying stress on the condition that the seer should be a child " who had not known sin,"-suffice it in thisshort glance at the history of the subject to take the descriptionwritten in Egypt by an eye-witness, Lane.¹ His curiosity wasexcited by Mr. Salt, the English Consul- General, who, onsuspecting his servants of theft, sent for a magician. Mr. Salthimself selected a boy as seer, while the magician occupiedhimself with writing charms on pieces of paper which, withincense and perfumes, were afterwards burned in a brazier ofcharcoal; then, drawing a diagram in the boy's right palm, intothe middle of which he poured some ink, he bade him lookfixedly into it. After various visions had come and gone, theform of the guilty person appeared to the boy, and was recognised by the description he gave. On being arrested thethief thus strangely convicted confessed his crime.·This incident prompted Lane to further inquiries, and otherresults, of which he gives a very full account, were obtained. Onone occasion the magician wrote certain invocations on paper,summoning his two genii, then added a verse from the Koran,"to open the boy's eyes in a supernatural manner .. to makehis sight pierce into what is to us the invisible world." Thesewere burnt in a chafing dish containing live charcoal, with frankincense and various spices, etc. A boy of eight or nine yearsold had been chosen at random from a number who happenedto be passing in the street, and the magician, taking hold of hisright hand drew in the palm a magic square, that is to say onesquare inscribed within another, and in the space betweencertain Arabic numerals; then, pouring ink into the centre,bade the boy look into it attentively. At first he could only seethe face of the magician; but proceeding with his inspectionwhile the other continued to drop written invocations into thechafing-dish, he at length described a man sweeping with abroom, then a scene in which flags and soldiers appeared; andfinally Lane asked that Nelson should be called for. The boydescribed a man in European clothes of dark blue, who hadlost his left arm, but added, on looking more intently, “ No, it1 Lane, Customs of the Modern Egyptians ( 1833-35) , I. cap. 12.Compare a similar description in Burke's Anecdotes of the Aristocracyand Episodes of Ancestral History, vol. i . p. 124.AND ILLUSIONS. 65is placed to his breast. " Lord Nelson generally had an emptysleeve attached to the breast of his coat, but, as it was the rightarm he had lost, Lane adds: " Without saying that I suspectedthe boy had made a mistake, I asked the magician whether theobjects appeared in the ink as if actually before the eyes, or asif in a glass, which makes the right appear left. He answeredthey appeared as in a mirror. This rendered the boy's description faultless. "Among the Greeks, besides crystal- gazing strictly so- called ,other methods of divination by reflection were used. Therewas hydromancy, which was practised chiefly at Patræ, wherethe fountain before the temple of Demeter delivered oracles.The manner of consulting it was this: a mirror was let down bya small cord into the fountain, so that it just touched the surfaceof the water, and from the various figures and images whichappeared upon it, divination was made. Then there waslecanomancy, in which a bowl containing water, or a mixture ofoil and wine, took the place of the crystal; catoptromancy, ' inwhich metal mirrors were used; gastromancy, in which withcertain incantations a boy was appointed to observe the middlepoint (yaσrp) of a glass vessel full of water, surrounded bytorches; lastly, onychomancy, performed by the oiled finger nailsof an unpolluted boy. There can be little doubt that the cup ofJoseph, "in which my lord drinketh, and whereby indeed hedivineth," was used for such magical purposes.2Numerous instances of divination by mirror or crystal-gazingoccurred among the Romans. In the writings of St. ThomasAquinas, and others of the Fathers, the art is condemned asdevilish in its origin , but in spite of saintly malisons, in spite ofa special condemnation from the Faculty of Theology in Paris(1398) , the Specularii continued to flourish. Pico de Mirandola ( 1463-94), himself a foe to astrologers, who had declaredhis death in his thirty- second year, was a firm believer in mirrorvisions.1 Practised by Septimius Severus and Julian the Apostate , amongothers. Bodinus, Dæmonomania, and Fromman, De Fascinatione ( 1676), p. 727, report the like of Catherine de Medici.2 Genesis xliv. 5. Compare also the names of two of the stoneson the breastplate which the high priest wore when he went before theLord-Johalam and Ahaloma (halam = vision) , Exodus xxviii . 19, 20.566 HALLUCINATIONSJohann Rist, the accomplished mathematician and scholar,tells of a wonderful crystal made by Wysbro in Augsburg; andseventeenth century writers frequently refer to a famous crystalat Nuremberg, by which even a scientific problem is reported tohave been solved! In England, in the middle of the sixteenthcentury, Dr. Dee, famous for his crystal visions and prophecies,flourished at the court of Elizabeth. He has left behind hima chronicle of his experiences in a very readable book. Thestory is well known ofthe prophecy which revealed to the Dukeof Orleans the fate of the princes through whose death hebecame Regent of France.+In legends and fairy tales too the magic-mirror often figures(Snowwhite's " little mirror on the wall; " The Arabian Nights);and the theme has passed into modern literature , in the fairytales of Musæus, Fouqué's " Zauberring," etc.Some of the crystal-visions obtained in the mannerabove described are held by those who report themto be telepathic or " veridical. " I shall not discussthese here, however, as we must first come to someconclusion on telepathy itself. By far the greatestnumber deal with memory- pictures, and not a fewreproduce visual impressions which have not penetrated to the "upper consciousness " (Dessoir'sOberbewusstsein, ¹ Myers' supra - liminal consciousness),or externalise ideas which, to keep to the sameterminology, were latent in the percipient's subliminal consciousness. The reproduction of a visualimpression which had apparently " dropped out " iswell illustrated by the following example:-2" I had carelessly destroyed a letter without preserving theaddress of my correspondent. I knew the county, and searching in a map recognised the name of the town, one unfamiliarto me, but which I was sure I should know when I saw it.1 M. Dessoir, Das Doppel- ich.2 "Recent Experiments in Crystal- Vision, " from which account thefollowing examples are taken.AND ILLUSIONS. 67But I had no clue to the name of house or street, till at lastit struck me to test the value of the crystal as a means ofrecalling forgotten knowledge. A very short inspection supplied me with ' H-- House ' (the entire word in grey letterson a white ground) , and having nothing better to suggest fromany other source, I risked posting my letter to the address sostrangely supplied. A day or two brought me an answer,headed ' H- House,' in grey letters on a white ground.” ¹A similar case is that of the appearance in thecrystal of a newspaper paragraph announcing thedecease of an acquaintance, whose illness and deathwere unknown to the percipient. It happened, however, that she had been interrupted the day beforewhile reading the first sheet of the Times, and theparagraph, almost word for word as it had appearedin the crystal, was discovered just where she hadbroken off. The visual impression of the words hadbeen received, but had never reached the percipient'sconsciousness, and now emerged as a hallucination.2¹ In another case the information obtained through the crystal was false.2 That in such cases there is no need to speak of a subconscious' intelligence " is shown by those examples in which the impressionsubconsciously received is wholly destitute of ideational quality, and istherefore reproduced hallucinatorily as a pure sense impression. Thusa lady saw in the crystal the following letters appear one after another,detnawaenoemosotniojaetavirpeleric, and so on, whichapparently meaningless message was at length discovered ' to be thereproduction of a newspaper paragraph: " Wanted a some one to joina private circle, " etc. , each word being spelt backward separately.Such a senseless reproduction of visual impressions, associated only bymere external sequence, is often met with in automatic writing. Thisoccurs most frequently as mirror-script "; or, as I have myselfobserved, planchette sometimes writes boustrophedon, that is to sayfrom left to right in the ordinary way, and back again from right to leftin "mirror-script. " Another illustration is to be found in the anagramsproduced by automatic writing. ( See the case of " Clelia " in theProc. of the S.P.R. , 1883-84, p. 226. ) So there is absolutely noneed to postulate, like Du Prel, special mysteries and laws of the" spirit- world. "6668 HALLUCINATIONSThe part played by association in this reproductionis shown in the following case:—"One of my earliest experiences was a picture, perplexingand wholly unexpected—a quaint oak chair, an old hand, a wornblack coat- sleeve resting on the arm of the chair, -slowlyrecognised as the recollection of a room in a country vicarage,which I had not entered and but seldom recalled since I was achild of ten. But whence came this vision, what associationhad conjured up this picture? . . . At length the clue wasfound. I had that day been reading in Dante, first enjoyedwith the help of our dear old vicar many a year ago."If we now pass to the visions of the second class,the externalisation of latent ideas, we find that, as inhypnotism, the image may be awakened by the soundof an associated word, and rise to the level of ahallucinatory perception. Exactly in the same wayin crystal- vision it may be excited by a relatedvisual impression, a printed word for instance, consciously or unconsciously received, and may underfavourable conditions be projected in the form of ahallucination, like the frozen music in Baron Munchhausen's posthorn, which could be thawedout in a warmroom and set merrily sounding. Thus Miss X. , thewriter on crystal- vision in the Proceedings, tells how shecut the pages of a book without reading it, and soonafter, on looking into the crystal, saw first a rockycoast, which was afterwards nearly eclipsed by theimage of a large mouse. Two days later, on takingup the same volume towhich caught her eye seemed somehow familiar66read it, a couple of lines' Only the sea intoning,Only the wainscoat mouse,"and she concluded that these words, unconsciously.read before, had suggested the visions. On anotherAND ILLUSIONS. 69occasion it was shown that a puzzling vision of thecorner of a room decorated in green, white, and redstripes, was to be explained by a letter recentlyreceived from a friend who was having her house redecorated, and wrote that the staircase had just beenpainted, and " looked at present like a Neapolitanice. "From my own experiments I select the following: -A hypnotised subject, A. , received the post-hypnotic suggestion thathe could not open the door ofthe room or go out through the opendoor. When awakened he was absolutely amnestic. An experiment in crystal-vision, made after twenty-five minutes' talk,yielded the pentagram; on a second experiment being made, theword " Drudenfuss ” (Anglicè, pentagram) appeared in Roman characters. The first two letters were so indistinctly writtenthat A. could only read “ udenfuss ” at first, and arrived at theword through trying various combinations. Even then he continued to complain that the " Dr" was hardly legible.The last example which I shall give is again takenfrom Miss X.'s account, and seems to me of specialinterest, as illustrating how purely abstract conceptions may give rise to concrete images."On March 20th I. happened to want the date of PtolemyPhiladelphus, which I could not recall, though feeling sure that Iknew it, and that I associated it with some event of importance.When looking in the crystal some hours later I found a pictureof an old man, with long white hair and beard, dressed like aLyceum Shylock, and busy writing in a large book with tarnished massive clasps. I wondered much who he was and whathe could possibly be doing, and thought it a good opportunityof carrying out a suggestion which had been made to me, ofexamining objects in the crystal with a magnifying glass. Theglass revealed to me that my old gentleman was writing inGreek, though the lines faded away as I looked, all but thecharacters he had last traced, the Latin numerals LXX. Thenit flashed into my mind that he was one of the Jewish elders atwork on the Septuagint, and that its date, 277 B.C. , would70 HALLUCINATIONSserve equally well for Ptolemy Philadelphus! It may be worthwhile to add, though the fact was not in my conscious memoryat the moment, that I had once learned a chronology on amnemonic system which substituted letters for figures, and that the memoria technica for this date was Now Jewish Eldersindite a Greek copy.' "Just as visual images may be called up by gazingon a shining object, so by placing a sea- shell to theear it is possible to induce auditory hallucinations.I therefore class such hallucinations with crystalvisions, which they resemble in their content. Thisanalogy is borne out by cases like that of thelady who, if she listened to the shell after a dinnerparty generally heard repeated , not the conversationof her “ lawful interlocutor," to which her attentionhad been directed, but the talk of her neighbours onthe other side, which she had not consciously noted atthe time.¹The history of divination by voice-oracles andsounds takes us, like crystal - vision, to remotecountries and legendary times. Dodona had itsmurmuring grove, and, coming to a later date, weread of shell - divination as practised by the ThibetanBuddhists, by the Chinese, and by other Easternfolks, while even to this day the Hungarian gipsieslisten for the voice of the Nivasha, or Spirit of theAir, in the sea-shell. That this art was familiarto the necromancers of the Middle Ages is indicatedby a passage in Paracelsus. Some experiments arereported by Spitta, who fastened up a bell of abouttwenty inches in diameter in a large and lofty room,1 Myers, " The Subliminal Consciousness, " Proc. of the Soc. f.Psych. Res. , vol . viii . p. 493.2 Paracelsus, Archidoxorum, L. 6.3 Spitta, op. cit. , p. 293.AND ILLUSIONS. 71He then struckrim with a sortWhile strainingfrom which he excluded the light.the bell several times gently on theof drum-stick covered with a cloth.his ear to catch the last faint reverberations he foundthat he was able to call up auditory delusions. Theonly one which he has recorded, however, is foundedupon an illusory interpretation of the sound of thebell.Dissociation of Consciousness the common Characteristic of all these States.-If we now cast a glanceback at the matter which we have been consideringin this chapter, and seek for some quality commonto all the various states in which hallucinations occur,we shall find that their most striking characteristicis the dissociation of consciousness. Obstructed association is indicated in almost every case. Inmelancholia it is " not the energy of the psychicalprocesses which is abnormally feeble, but the resistance which is abnormally great. " In mania, indeed,there would seem to be a swifter on- rush of ideas.In alcohol- delirium however, which, besides its manyother resemblances to mania,2 exhibits a quickenedflow of verbal images, it is seen that this is accompanied bya slowing down ofthe actual work of thinking.3"It would seem, therefore, that there is free play ofmental images when the intellectual factor givesplace to those motor elements which arise out ofmere verbal naming. This would at least explainthe want of unity in the train of thought frequently¹ Kraepelin, Psychiatrie, p. 292.2 Compare the parallel drawn by Griesinger between alcohol- delirium and mania, op. cit. , § 144.3 See Kraepelin , Ueber die Beeinflussung einfach. psych. Vorgängedurch einige Arzneimittel ( 1892).72 HALLUCINATIONS .to be observed under such circ*mstances, and theprominence of purely external auditory associations.The patient babbles senselessly, because the flow ofverbal images is accelerated, while the association ofideas is impeded. " 1 Since the hereditarily degenerateare so liable to hallucinations, that some patientsseem to see and hear everything they think, andcannot shake off the deceptions of which they areconscious, we must suppose that the higher neuralelements are in their case easily exhausted, so thattheir state resembles that which follows on prolongedfasting, or where, from whatever cause, inanition,with its attendant hallucinations, is present.It is unnecessary to emphasise the point furtherwith regard to the hallucinations accompanyinghysteria, epilepsy, states of intoxication, fever- delirium and sleep, or indeed with regard to thoseoccurring in hypnosis, notwithstanding the rare casesof post-hypnotic hallucinations in which a disturbanceof consciousness has not been observed or proved.In crystal-vision , freedom from conscious thought ormental pre- occupation is an essential condition."we Whilst laying stress upon this common element zve¹ Kraepelin, Psychiatrie, pp. 280, 281 .2 Lange, On Arvelighendens Indflydelse i Sinsygdomene ( 1883) .3 For instance, as a preparation for ecstasy.4 Becquet, Arch. gén. 6, Sér. VII. , pp. 169 , 303 ( 1866) , says that thedelirium of inanition is mild, and the accompanying hallucinations notof a terrifying nature.5 For the grounds for assuming a partial dissociation in the hallucinations of paranoia, especially of the auditory type, see later." Miss X " states that during her experiments in crystal- vision herconsciousness was in every way quite normal, but the expressions used by the writer of the letter, published in another article by " Miss X"(Proc. S.P.R., vol. i . , March 1895 , p . 132) , about the latter's "uncanny " and "fixed " look , and her " dreamy, far-away tone, " makethese statements appear somewhat paradoxical.AND ILLUSIONS. 73do not seek in any way to underrate the differencesbetween the various states in which sense-deceptionsmay occur. Indeed, these differences are shownclearly enough in the character of the hallucinations,not so much as regards their content, as in themanner of their occurrence. Thus the stronglymarked, vividly- externalised hallucination of monomania is self-contained, and changing but slowly,differs widely from the unstable hallucination of thehysterical subject, which springs like his mentaldelusions from obscure sensations, and owing to thetransitory nature of the exciting cause generallypossesses little permanence. In general paralysis theloss of the critical faculties and power of judgment,caused by the lapse of the higher mental functions,which expresses itself in absurd and aimless babble,is reflected also in the character of the hallucinations;whilst in mania nothing is more striking than thesuperficiality of the sensory delusions, and theirliability to change their character, as indicated bythe way in which the patient will laughingly contradict his own statements of the moment before.It is clear that the state of dissociation is notalways the same. Rather we find an endless seriesof gradations from the deepest stages of becloudedconsciousness to one which is hardly to be distinguished from the normal; or, to express it differently, from the slightest indications of obstructedassociation to its almost complete inhibition; or fromthe profound cleavage of consciousness to the meresplitting off of single elements, or small groups ofelements. The more complete the obstruction of theassociation paths, and the deeper the disturbance ofconsciousness, the more numerous are the sensory74 HALLUCINATIONSdelusions (as in collapse and fever- delirium, forinstance), and the less likely are they to be remembered. Thus, states of profound disturbance ofconsciousness, like epilepsy and deep sleep, are subjectively described as dreamless; whilst states ofonly slightly disturbed consciousness, for instance,the periods of transition between sleeping andwaking, are regarded as favourable to the occurrenceof sensory delusions (hypnagogic and hypnopompichallucinations). It is natural, therefore, that theoccurrence of hallucinations should be reported, notonly in such transition states between sleeping andwaking when in bed at night, or during the afternoonsiesta, but also in analogous states otherwise produced. The performance of automatic movements,for instance, such as the monotonous tramping on along walk or march, often induces such a condition.In the winter of 1814 Herr Prus had left the regiment towhich he was attached to visit his family, who lived about twoleagues off. He relates his experiences as follows: -- “ I hadhardly walked one league in the extreme cold when Inoticed that my condition was no longer normal. I walkedmechanically, and my body seemed to me strangely light. Iknew well the cause and the danger of this state, and tried tohasten my steps, but in vain. Worse still, my eyes kept closingin spite of all my efforts. Then delightful visions visited me.I seemed to be in a beautiful garden, and saw trees, lawns,and streams," etc. 'But the on-coming of this hypnoid state is seldomso amenable to observation as in the case just quoted.It generally eludes self-observation. In some cases,like the following, a disturbance of the waking con-¹ Brierre de Boismont, Des Hallucinations, p. 349. He mentionsalso the visions, sometimes gay, sometimes melancholy, which haunted the soldiers of the Grande Armée on the retreat from Moscow.AND ILLUSIONS. 75sciousness is indicated, though it is not subjectivelyperceived.R—— states¹:-" I started from Lucerne on the 2nd Nov.,1861, intending to cross over to Glarus by the pass called theMutterthal. Lightly clad, with broken boots, bleeding feetwrapped in clouts, and only a few sous in my pocket, buttrusting in God, I set forth and had climbed for about an hourwhen a snowstorm came on, and it became impossible eitherto proceed or to turn back. It seemed to me that I shouldcertainly die there, and my whole life passed before me in afew minutes. I saw all my friends and folk at home. Thenthe strap of my knapsack broke, I saw it roll down into theabyss, and I gave myself up for lost. How well it waswith me then I cannot describe. I saw heaven opened. Inthe evening I found myself with some kind folk in a hut, buthow I got there I know not, nor whether I ran or flew, and,strange to say, my knapsack had been restored to me."Such accounts show, what also appears from observations on the hypnotic state, that the dissociationmay be very profound though it cannot be proved soclearly as in the above example. For instance, amedical man told me that during his tours amongthe Bavarian and Tyrolese Alps he enjoyed a specialpleasure in the auditory hallucinations which accompanied him on his solitary excursions whenever heclimbed above a certain height. Yet he seems tohave had no inkling of what these phenomenasignified. The point illustrated by these casesshould, at all events, never be lost sight of in thediscussion of hallucinations reported as occurringin the waking state; for if a man imagines that heis awake, he will naturally feel that his actions andconduct are rational, and will in all good faith so▲ Stat. Fragebogen d. Munch. Sammlung, Bog. 38. See Perty, op.cit., p. 88, for the account of a similar experience which happened to a certain Peter Stucki. Also Journal S.P.R. , Jan. 1889, p. 12.76 HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS.describe them, but an attentive study of such casesreveals more or less certain indications of dissociationof consciousness. What these indications are weshall see later, when, for instance, we come to consider the twenty-six cases of " waking-hallucinations"cited in proof of telepathy in the " Report on theCensus." (Proceedings of the S.P.R., vol. x. , August1894, pp. 211-241. )Such sensory delusions as those experienced inthe case of the physician quoted above may nevertheless be regarded, especially if they occur singlyand sporadically, as transitional forms to the classof hallucinations which have lately formed the subject of an extended international inquiry, the resultsof which, consisting as they do of entirely newmaterial, appear to call for special consideration.CHAPTER III.WAKING HALLUCINATIONS AND THE RESULT OFTHE INTERNATIONAL CENSUS.Early Accounts-The International Census-General Results-Sex, Age, Nationality, and State of Health of thePercipients -Their so-called "Waking" State really oneof Dissociation-Indications of this in the Narratives—Why such Indications are sometimes wanting—Hallucinations classified according to the Sense affected-Theless startling Hallucinations are soonforgotten.Early Accounts of WakingHallucinations.-Numerous accounts have come down to us even from classicaltimes of " waking hallucinations " experienced byIt is sufficient to mention here a fewofthe most celebrated.¹sane persons.Socrates, as we learn both from Plato and Xenophon, was often restrained and admonished by aninner voice when he, or one of his friends, was aboutto do something undesirable or displeasing to the god.The case of Timarchus ( Plato, Theages) is the mostdramatic of these warnings. Timarchus was sittingat supper with Socrates, and rose to go out to a¹ Most of the cases given here are taken from Brierre de Boismont,Des hallucinations; C. Lombroso, L'Uomo di Genio ( English ed. ,The Man of Genius, 1891 ); and Perty, op. cit.2 Lélut, Du Démon de Socrate (new edition, 1856); Myers, " TheDæmon of Socrates," Proc. S.P.R. (June 1889, ) p . 538. Bodinusmentions in his Damonomania a similar case of an acquaintance of hiswho felt a touch on his right ear when setting about some good or auspicious act, and on his left if the undertaking were evil or unluc78 HALLUCINATIONSplot of assassination, to which plot only one otherman was privy. " What say you, Socrates? ' saidTimarchus, ' do you continue drinking; I must goout some whither, but will return in a little, if soI may.' And the voice came to me; and I said tohim , ' By no means rise from the table; for theaccustomed divine sign has come to me.' And hestayed. And after a time again he got up to go, andsaid, ' I must be gone, Socrates! ' And the sign came tome again, and again I made him stay. And the thirdtime, determining that I should not see, he rose andsaid nought to me, and my mind was turned elsewhere; and thus he went forth and was gone, andIdid that which was to be his doom."Athenodorus, the philosopher, saw a spectre in ahouse in Athens. On the following day he informedthe magistrates, who caused the place to be searched,and a skeleton was found buried in the spot wherethe spectre had disappeared. During one part of hiscareer Descartes was constantly followed by an invisible being who urged him not to abandon hissearch after truth. On the completion of his bookDe Veritate, Lord Herbert of Cherbury received asign of approval from heaven. Cardan had a guardianspirit which interposed to prevent him lapsing intoerror; and Pascal, after a fall , saw a black gulf alwaysat his feet. The materialist Hobbes was continuallyhaunted in the dark by the faces of the dead. Thephilosopher Krause frequently from his fifth to hissixth year, and occasionally also in later life, heard avoice utter the words, " Remember death. "Out of religious history I select the four followingexamples:-Savonarola saw visions even in his earlyyouth; and later on he saw heaven opened and theRCE TH UNIVERSITYOF CALIFORNIA AND ILLUSIONS. 79appearance of a sword, upon which was written,"Gladius Domini super terram." Luther was subjectto numerous auditory and visual delusions. In thechurch at Wittenberg and on the Sacred Stairs atRome he seemed to hear the words, " The justshall live by faith; " and often enough midnight foundhim disputing with the devil on knotty points ofdoctrine. But Audin¹ is of opinion, arguing from thefeebleness of Luther's replies, that the whole disputemust have taken place in a dream. Not less subjectto hallucinations was Luther's great opponent Loyola,for to him the Virgin appeared, and celestial voices.encouraged his projects and fired his zeal. It was inobedience to a "divine voice " which told him to"forsake all and be a stranger to all, " that George Fox,the founder of the Quaker sect, left his family andfriends. When distressed at finding no support onany side, he was consoled by a voice which said,"Jesus Christ understands thee."Tacitus2 relates how Curtius Rufus, when only agladiator's son, was visited by the apparition of aglorious female form, who informed him that he shouldbecome Proconsul of Africa. Oliver Cromwell alsohad his future greatness foretold to him by an apparition. Drusus, on one of his campaigns, wasturned back from crossing the Rhine by a giganticform which appeared to him; Julian the Apostatebeheld on the eve of his death the genius of theempire flying from him in consternation; and it wasnot so much veneration for Leo that checked Attila'smarch upon Rome, as the vision of an old man in1 Audin, Geschichte d. Lebens, d. Lehren u. Schriften Dr. M.Luthers.2 Tacitus, Ann. xi . 21 .So HALLUCINATIONSpriest's raiment who threatened his death with adrawn sword.Plutarch¹ tells the story of Bessus the parricidewho, like Shakespeare's Macbeth, was haunted bythe personified voice of conscience. One day, whensitting at a banquet with his friends and parasiteshe suddenly became inattentive to their flatteries,sprang up, and seizing his sword, struck at a nestfull of young swallows and killed the poor birds,because, said he, they dared to reproach him withthe murder of his father. Theodoric the Great, overwhelmed with remorse because he had consentedto the death of Symmachus, one day uttered a cryof horror when a new kind of fish was served athis table, for he imagined he saw, not the head ofthe fish, but that ofthe unfortunate senator.2 Manoury,who was chosen to examine Grandier on the chargeof witchcraft (see p. 37, Note 2 ), tortured his victimwith ruthless barbarity. Soon after he saw the spiritof the dead Grandier before him, and thereuponfell into a frenzy and died raving mad. After themassacre of St. Bartholomew, Charles IX. took hisfavourite physician aside and begged him to find somemeans to deliver him from the phantoms of thevictims which constantly haunted him.A vision of the Madonna was granted to thepainter Raphael, when he had been vainly striving topicture her features with his mind's eye and fix themon the canvas. After Spinello had painted " TheFall of Lucifer " he was visited by the devil in person,who reproached him bitterly with making him lookso frightful. The painter Montana saw the picturesPlutarch, De sera numinis vindicta.2 Procopius, De bello Italico.AND ILLUSIONS. SIhe was about to paint so vividly before him, that ifany one got between him and the phantasmal scene orfigure he would ask them to stand aside. It is toldof another popular portrait- painter that he only required one sitting from his model, and afterwardscompleted the portrait from the hallucinatory imagewhich he was able to call up at his will. BenvenutoCellini relates how a voice spoke to him in prison andwithheld him from suicide. This auditory hallucination was in his case the starting- point of other sensoryfallacies. Tasso was vexed by many strange delusions, and Byron was often haunted by spectres.After receiving the news of Byron's death, WalterScott suddenly saw his friend's image before him.Astonished at the natural appearance of the clothes,he approached the phantom and discovered that itwas an illusion, and that the clothes of the figureconsisted of the folds of a curtain. Schumannsuffered from auditory hallucinations and imaginedthat Beethoven dictated to him the melodies whichhe composed. Talma confided to a friend that oftenwhen acting with most force and brilliancy he sawthe theatre filled with an audience of skeletons inplace ofliving playgoers.This mass of old material consists for the most partof picturesque cases like those quoted above, moresatisfactory to the raconteur than to the student.The sensory delusions of Luther, Tasso, and Schumann may certainly be referred to neurotic or psychopathic states of which the presence is also indicated byother symptoms, but the narratives are in general soconfused and contradictory, and so seldom come to usat first hand, that it is difficult to arrive at any satisfactory conclusions about them. Until lately it was682 HALLUCINATIONSnot even possible to say with certainty whetherhallucinations were exceptional or quite frequentphenomena of the waking state.The International Census ofWaking Hallucinations.-Of a very different evidential value is the material.which we have now to consider. A statistical inquiryon the subject was first undertaken by EdmundGurney.¹ Later on the inquiry was approved by theParis Congress for Psycho- Physiology; and for thevaluable results of the present census we have chieflyto thank the English Society for Psychical Research. 2 The source from which I shall mainlyquote these results will be the Report on the Census ofHallucinations -a model of clearness, accuracy, andindefatigable industry, -which analyses and elucidatesin various ways the answers received to the thousandsof circulars which were sent out on the " Nature andFrequency of the Occurrence of Hallucinations in theSane." Besides the tables published in the Report,I have availed myself of those communicated to theLondon International Congress for ExperimentalPsychology. Further, in addition to the ad interimreports published from time to time during the pro1 See Phantasms ofthe Living.2 To which I shall henceforward refer as the " S. P. R. "Published by Professor Henry Sidgwick's Committee in the Proceedings of the S.P.R. , vol . x . , Aug. 1894, and to which I shall hence- forth refer as 66 the Report. "The4 These tables do not agree figure for figure with those of the Report, owing to the fact that in preparing the “ Report" it was foundnecessary to make some changes in the methods of calculation.earlier tables, however, have here often been used, as the changes are not of very great importance, and as the French and American resultsare still before us only in their provisional form . The reports of theMunich section are here published for the first time. (CompareAppendix I. )AND ILLUSIONS. 83gress of the inquiry, I have sought to incorporate, asfar as possible, the results of the census carried on atthe same time and for the same purpose in America(by William James), in France (by L. Marillier), andin Germany (under the guidance of Von SchrenckNotzing, by the Munich section¹ of the Gesellschaftfür psychologische Forschung) .²The question put to all persons included in theinquiry was: " Have you ever, when believing yourselfto be completely awake, had a vivid impression ofseeingor being touched by a living being or inanimate object,or ofhearing a voice; which impression, so far as youcould discover, was not due to any external physicalcause? "In answer to the question , 27,329 answers in allwere received (see Table I. ) , of which 24,058 werenegative and 3271, or 11.96 per cent. , affirmative;that is to say, 3271 persons stated that they hadexperienced hallucinations. Though a certain proportion of these cases might be explained away, asdue to mistaken identity, for instance, or in the caseof auditory phenomena, to the real banging of a dooror creaking of furniture, and such like, still, whenwe consider the high percentage of results, and thecareful investigation of individual cases (on whichwe may depend in the case of the English collectorsespecially), it is impossible to doubt that the frequentoccurrence of so- called " waking hallucinations " isproved.Sex ofthe Informants. -Little information is given1 The results of the Berlin section were forwarded to the EnglishCommittee, and doubtless have been incorporated with theirReport.2Compare throughout this chapter the tables in Appendix II.84HALLUCINATIONSas to the persons who were the subjects of theexperiences. The first fact that strikes us is thedifference between the two sexes in the percentage ofpersons who had experienced hallucinations ( in men9.75, in women 14.56). It is unfortunate that thisdivision ofthe two sexes was not carried further, as itmight have led to interesting results in the tables whichdeal with the age of the percipients. Be that as itmay, the general conclusion of the Report, that thisapparent difference should to a great extent beattributed to the fact that men, among the pressinginterests and occupations of their lives, forget theseexperiences sooner, may on the whole be regardedas satisfactory.-Age. With regard to age, hallucinations arereported as occurring most frequently ( I quote herespecially from the English table, which is the mostcomplete) between 15 and 30 years of age, more thanhalf ( 52 per cent. ) being experienced during thisperiod. The lustrum from 20 to 25 yields the highestpercentage of all -over 21 per cent.; while after thattheir frequency diminishes in a regular curve.¹ Thesefigures must not of course be taken as expressing aproportion which holds true absolutely; they referonly to the number of hallucinations communicatedas occurring during these periods, and we should notbe justified, without closer inquiry, in arguing fromthem a greater disposition to hallucinations at oneage than at another. For it stands to reason thatfewer answers were received from persons between60 and 80, since only the minority reach that age;and careful observation would no doubt reveal a1 A similar curve is shown by the Munich collection . See TableIII. b.AND ILLUSIONS. 85much higher percentage among children.¹ In anycase it seems very desirable, in view of the importance of the question, that some statistics bearingupon it should be collected and published.Nationality. One table of the English collectionis devoted to the nationality of the informants.It yields the following results (see Appendix II. ,Table IV. ):—Answers from English- speakingAffirmative Answers....1,499 9.4 per cent.108 =15.9countries ... ...Answers from Russians ...15,940 .680...99 99 Braziliansother nations..."" "" ...264 ..116 ... 9914 12.1 22... 63=23.9These figures show that the percentage of affirmative answers decreases in proportion as the totalnumber of answers increases, and indicates that thepercentage already quoted, 11.96, must be regarded¹ Children seem to be specially liable to hallucinations. As to whatis the earliest age at which hallucinations may occur, an instance isgiven by Thore, Ann. Méd. Psych. , 1860, p. 168, of a hallucinationseen by a child of 5 years old during convalescence from an attack ofpneumonia. Berkhan, Irresein bei Kindern ( Neuwied, 1863 ) , reportsone in the case of a little boy of 3. Kelp, on the other hand, considers (Irrenfreund, 1879) that the alleged occurrence in such a case isdue to a mere confusion of expression; that the occurrence of hallucinations is only possible in older children, as, for instance, in thosecases of epileptic children observed by Köhler ( Irrenfreund, 1878).In the Annales des Sciences Psychiques, Jan. - Feb. 1894, p. 7, aninstance is recorded of hallucination in a child not quite two yearsold. But no one who has watched the lively dreaming of a two orthree-year-old child will find anything remarkable in the occurrence ofhallucinations at that age; ` compare Sidney Ringer, Med. Times andGazette, May 1867; Ann. Méd. Psych. , 1848, " Un mot sur les hallucinations de la première enfance; " see also above, p. 30, Note 3.Amongst the hallucinations experienced by children grotesque ormonstrous forms seem to predominate.86 HALLUCINATIONSas still too high, and as certain on a further"intensive " (not extensive) inquiry to be furtherlowered. It cannot indeed well be otherwise. Thecollectors of the answers were themselves interestedin the subject, and were very probably thereforeacquainted with cases of hallucinations; and althoughthey had been instructed carefully to avoid selectingthe persons to be asked according to what they werelikely to say, still it is not to be expected that theywould as a rule exclude cases already known to them(which would also have been a kind of " selecting ").It would be but natural indeed that they shouldobtain accounts of such cases first. Thus it happensthat the fewer the answers received, the higher is thepercentage of ' yeses '; and the more thoroughly thefield is gleaned, so to speak (the more "intensive "the inquiry), the smaller is the proportion of affirmative answers received. A similar result is given by acomparison of the English ad interim reports¹ witheach other:—I. Report up to 24/10/1889 ... Answers, 2928 ... Affirmative, 12.4 II. ""III. 2211/7/1890...1/7/1891 ...Congress Report, 1/7/1892 ...""996481 ...9276...17,000..."" II.I11.469.9That is to say, that after the first 3000 answers hadbrought 12.4 affirmative answers, the following 3500brought only about 10 per cent. Thenthe percentagerose-perhaps as the result of new sources being drawnupon-to fall still lower in the last period. Up tothe middle of 1890 ( II. Report) , out of 6481 answers,II.I were affirmative; between the third ad interim1Quoted from the Proceedings of the S.P. R. for the correspondingyears.AND ILLUSIONS. 87Report and the Congress Report, that is to say, between July 1891 and July 1892, the answers receivednumbered 7724, of which only 8.8 were affirmative.But if the figures in the third intermediate Reportrelated only to England, and the reports from Brazil,etc., were not received or incorporated till the fourthperiod (which seems probable from the heading ofthe ad interim report), then the difference is stillmore striking; for it would appear that the 6481answers in the second Report, of which II.I wereaffirmative, must be contrasted with the total of 6664answers in the fourth period, of which only 6.6 wereaffirmative.

-

If we leave out of account the figures of theMunich collection, which are too small to generalisefrom, we find that Table I. gives the same result: -Collected by Marillier ..Answers, 3493 ...Affirmative, 19 per cent."" W. James .. ""the S.P.R.. "" دو6311...17,000..."9 13.5 """" 9.9For these reasons it seems to me that even thepercentage of the English- speaking section, in whichevery eleventh individual can remember having had ahallucination, is considerably too high; nor is thisinaccurate result rendered more accurate by theaddition of reports from other countries ( see TableI. b. ). ¹ On the contrary, an inquiry on such asuperficial and extensive plan yields results which.are more and more misleading, since only the creamis skimmed off. Nothing but a rigidly intensiveinquiry spread over a comparatively small area can,in my opinion, lead to approximately correct results.1 For this reason I rely in the following account only on the figures of the English collection. The results of the Munich " collection aregiven in the Tables at the end.88 HALLUCINATIONS-results which may be checked and amended laterby the figures yielded by similar inquiries in otherdistricts. Whether equally thorough researches invarious countries and among different nationalitieswould show any marked difference in the frequencyof hallucinations is another question. The surprisingresults of the French collection seem to indicate sucha difference, but the material before us would notjustify us in answering the question one way or theother.¹Health and Heredity. -According to the Report,23 cases which took place during scarlet fever, ortyphoid, or other similar states, were counted in thetables as though the persons who had experiencedthem had answered " No," as it was the purpose ofthe inquiry to enumerate the hallucinations only of1 The fact that in the cases in which all the members of certain well.defined groups were questioned (for instance, the guests at one table,the dwellers in one house, the members of a committee) a higher percentage than the average resulted , in nowise weakens my contention ,for the number of persons in these groups was by far too small. Thusanswers were obtained from 625 persons in all in such groups, of which82, or 13.1 per cent. , were affirmative -41 visual, 37 auditory, and 10tactile hallucinations being reported , while in three cases the detailswere not given ( collection of the S. P. R. ) . It is shown, on the otherhand, by the English committee, that 6500-that is to say, over onethird of the total number of answers-were collected by 37 persons.These collectors, at least, must have gone pretty thoroughly throughtheir circle of acquaintances; moreover, some of the rest of the collection was made by their friends, whose circle of acquaintance wouldoverlap theirs, so that certain sets of people have been exhaustively canvassed. The Brazilian collection was the work of one collector, yetthese figures do not seem to me to be inconsistent with the assumption of selection. That selection has taken place is acknowledged in theReport, and in the interesting cases-the " telepathic " ones—its influence is specially noticeable. In drawing up the Report it was amatter of some difficulty to trace even these obviously selected cases and to eliminate them from the calculations.AND ILLUSIONS. 89"6persons in a normal condition. Nevertheless, 123other cases were retained, in which a certain degreeof ill - health was reported. In 21 of them the percipient was in a state of convalescence after some illness, apparently acute, and in 55 a state of depressedhealth or minor illness was indicated by such expressions as " in a nervous, dyspeptic condition," orbronchitis with weakness of the heart." In 48 percent. of the cases no statement at all was made as tohealth; in about 44 per cent. a positive statement wasmade that the percipient was in good health at thetime. The proof that this was really the case restsfor the most part solely on subjective impressions.¹In a few cases in the Munich collection, where thereports were collected by medical men, such remarksare to be found as nervous temperament," " markedchlorotic condition," along with notes to the effectthat the percipient was perfectly sound in mind, andso on.No questions referring to the heredity of the percipient were printed in the schedules, and thus theReport has no statistics on the subject. But thequestion whether certain families show a predisposition to hallucinations has been treated as far as thefragmentary material would allow, with the followingresults: Taking three generations of lineal descendants into consideration, it was found that in 34families hallucinations had occurred in at least twogenerations; in 41 families they had been experiencedby a brother and sister, or two sisters, or twobrothers; and in 10 cases by at least two personsI There are a few cases which should be more strictly judged , andperhaps ruled out—such cases, for instance, as 327.25, where, accordingto the account given, a high degree of hysteria was present.90 HALLUCINATIONSrelated to one another as uncles or aunts tonephews or nieces, or as cousins, or by " othermembers of the family," whose exact relationship tothe percipient is not stated. Nor does the materialcollected on the subject of the kinship of personswho experience collective hallucinations (those simultaneously shared by two or more persons) furnish uswith any trustworthy data concerning family predisposition to hallucination; it proves nothing morethan that such experiences are most likely to beshared by those who spend a great part of their timein each others' society.¹State of Consciousness. -In one important particular the sensory fallacies with which we are nowdealing seem to be distinguished from all others.While in most other cases a more or less generalstate of dissociation of consciousness is met with,the sensory delusions are here supposed to take placein a state of complete wakefulness. According tothe schedule, it is only under such circ*mstances thatthe question is to be answered in the affirmative;and the answers are mostly to the effect that theapparitions, voices, etc. , occurred in the waking state.Nevertheless, the Committee of the S.P.R. haveseen fit to divide these reports into two groups, andto distinguish the cases in which the percipient wasout of bed, or even out of doors, and in which, therefore, he might be presumed to be fully awake, fromthose cases where the hallucinations occurred in thebrief interlude between two periods of sleep, orgenerally when the percipient was in bed. Thelatter class are reckoned as "borderland hallucina1 With regard to the collective hallucinations, it would have beeninteresting to know the ages of the percipients.AND ILLUSIONS. 91tions." On a first comparison of the figures in thesetwo groups we seem to find confirmation of thepercipient's own statement, that the hallucinationsoccurred during the waking state, and furthermoreit seems possible to establish a rule as to the conditions under which they occur.Thus, if we take the relative figures out of thevarious tables and examine into the frequency ofhallucinations in the following circ*mstances,¹ wediscover a marked preponderance in the waking stateas opposed to the " borderland " state.The figures are as follows:-Visual hallucinations when fully awake 611 ... Borderland 394Auditory " "" "" 225 ... 192Tactile 59 ") 29 79 ... 80 ""· 915 Totals . ... 666It would seem, then, as if the rule were that theconditions favourable to the occurrence of the dreamstate are unfavourable to the occurrence of hallucinations. Indeed, this rule finds further confirmationwhen we compare the sensory delusions occurringduring a short break between two states of sleep withthose which occur at other times when the percipientis in bed; for here also, in this conspicuously favourable moment for the occurrence of dream- consciousness -the short interlude between two states of sleep,-only 127 hallucinations have been observed, whilemore than double that number have been reported astaking place in bed, but not in this borderland state.Such a result, however, seems to me self-contradictory. It is impossible to reconcile it with the1 Compare Tables V. , V. b . , VI. ¿. , VII.92 HALLUCINATIONSknown fact, that in the experimental induction ofhallucinations it is just this dream- state we seekto bring about by every means in our power, narcotic,psychic, or hypnogenic. We are therefore bound herealso to assume dissociation of consciousness as thefavourable ground in which alone sensory delusionsflourish, and when it is borne in mind that we are nowdealing not with the hallucinations which actuallyoccur, but only with those which are remembered,the figures, which seem to clash with our view, servefurther to confirm it, and the dissociation which wehave assumed a priori is found to be not inconsistentwith the facts. If we look at the figures in thislight, it is easy to see why the conditions favourable to the occurrence of dream-consciousness impedethe remembrance of the sense- deceptions experiencedin that state. In the first place, these conditionspromote deep sleep and the amnesia associatedwith it, and, secondly, even in a less profoundlyhallucinated state the conditions are favourable tothe transition into true sleep, in which new dreamsoccur, which serve to blot out the impression ofthose experienced in the previous state.¹ On theother hand, everything which impedes the occurrence of dream- consciousness tends to preserve thememory of the sensory delusions experienced in thelight stage, and to prevent the percipient frompassing into a deeper state, and thus ultimatelymakes for a sudden arousing of the dreamer into thestate of waking consciousness, the only state in whichmemory of a hallucinatory experience is possible, orat least probable.1 Compare Moll, Der Rapport in der Hypnose, p. 318 ( 38 ) , cases.23 and 24.AND ILLUSIONS. 93Evidence of Dissociation furnished by these Narratives.-A large number of the narratives dealtwith in the Report indicate that the informantswere firmly convinced that their hallucinationsoccurred in the waking state. In a few cases onlydo the percipients themselves admit, or suggest, thatthey may not have been fully awake, and expresstheir doubts by saying, “ I was drowsy," etc. In suchcases we may safely assume the presence of a dreamstate. In other accounts the narrator is not surewhether he was awake or asleep, or perhaps hepoints to some circ*mstance to prove that he wasawake at the time.In considering these cases, we must not forget thelessons of the preceding chapter. In every case weshould be on the look-out for hints and suggestionsindicating that the narrators are mistaken as to theirstate of consciousness; and, as a matter of fact, thereis no lack of such indications. It is evident, forinstance, that in many cases the hallucination wasexperienced at the moment of waking. Thus, toquote a less recent case in illustration, a clergymanreports that while he was lying in bed he heard aloud knocking, and called out " Come in," whereupon there entered a gigantic shape -the figureof his host, as we may suppose, fantasticallyaltered and grown to huge proportions. The apparition vanished with a loud crash, and directlyafterwards the owner of the house himself cameinto the room and asked what was the matter,he had heard such a noise. In this case the dreamwas evidently evoked at the moment the host.knocked and entered; and some loud noise whichhad been heard all over the house, and had tardily94 HALLUCINATIONSpenetrated to the dreamer's consciousness, also playeda part in the drama.¹In the same way the dreamer sometimes livesthrough a long and exciting romance, ending in aduel perhaps, and the noise of the pistol shot wakenshim at the exact moment when the wind bangs adoor. In both cases the fantastically interpretedsound is the starting- point of the dream, and in thewaking recollection the complex sensory impressionis split up and represented as a chain of events.Propter hoc, ergo post hoc.Again, it seems to me that the frequently recurringphrase, “ I had just awakened and given my baby thebreast," does not necessarily imply a state of wakingconsciousness. I think that in such moments a moreor less drowsy state may often be presumed, to whichthe exhaustion of a recent confinement, and perhapsalso the monotonous sucking of the child and similarcirc*mstances may contribute. Of course cases wherethe percipient, though not in bed, was resting afterdinner on a couch or in an arm- chair belong to thesame category.Further, in some cases we find evidence of suggestion acting in a state of expectancy, especially incollective hallucinations. For instance, a wife sawan apparition; the husband declared he could seenothing, but when the wife laid her hand on hisshoulder, saying, " George, do you really not see1 Retarded perception is illustrated by the case of a lady hypnotisedby me, who at the time heard nothing of the noise made by X. , one of those present. Even when I asked her, " Do you hear what X. isdoing? " she said she heard nothing. After X. was quiet again andsome other matter had been talked of by the subject and myself, shesuddenly asked me, " Why is X. knocking over the chairs and laughing? "AND ILLUSIONS. 95him?" the apparition speedily became visible tohim too. Or, again, a son waked his mother inthe night by calling out, " Look, mother, thereis Mr. ," whereupon the mother also saw thefigure. In another case a child saw the form ofhis mother, who had died recently, and screamedaloud so that his father and nurse hurried to him, andthen shared in the vision. A lady saw one night theform of her sister standing by her bed: " If it is real,and not a delusion, I shall see her reflection in themirror," she said to herself. The fact that the hallucination was reflected in the mirror, while thepercipient was only half awake and in a state ofexcited expectancy, completely convinced her that itwas a real objective figure which she saw.¹In other cases we have evidence that fixation of theeyes, or prolonged, abstracted gazing on a shining 3surface, has had some share in bringing about thephenomenon. Some narrators, indeed, state thatthe hallucinations occurred when the eyes weredirected fixedly to one point; for instance, "as wewere gazing intently at part of the dress," and so on.To this category are to be referred the apparitionsseen while the percipient stands before the mirror(perhaps dreamily brushing her hair), or those phantasms which haunt a writer or reader who has hadthe white paper for a long time under his eyes,especially in bright lamplight. It is also to benoted that in percipients who are often subject tohallucinations, over-work or over- strain and similarcauses induce numerous waking hallucinations, andthat in 13.56 per cent. of the cases nervous disturb-' Compare the interesting chapter on Expectancy and Suggestion inthe Report, pp. 174 et seq.96HALLUCINATIONSances, such as grief or anxiety, are reported. Itshould be added that in 62 per cent. of the cases ofvisual hallucination it is stated that the percipientwas alone; that is to say that the presence of others,a circ*mstance which conduces to the waking state,is unfavourable to the occurrence of hallucinations.A few more examples may serve to illustrate thispoint. The first case is hardly to be distinguishedfrom a dream, called up by the perception of themorning light at the moment of waking. It ispossible that the "loud scream mentioned by thenarrator was also dreamt."(Munich Collection , x. 13.) Three years ago in the spring of1886 (the month was April), between four and five o'clock in the ~morning, after I had waked, I saw my sister, who had died inher ninth year, standing by my bed. She was dressed in hergrave clothes. She approached my bed. At first I could onlysee something dim and mist- like, out of which the figure grew asit came near. I screamed aloud, and the form, which was notyet fully developed, melted away before my eyes. Asister whoslept in the same room was not wakened by my cry, and did notshare my experience.In the next account the effect of long abstractedgazing, perhaps in a state of fatigue, at a sheet ofpaper, seems to be clearly indicated. The visionappears to have been an illusory perception of theafter-image ofthe brightly lighted paper.(Munich Collection, xv. 10. ) At the time referred to (according to my recollection between 1 and 2 A.M., towards the endof November 1879) I felt as though a hand touched me on theright shoulder, and turning round I seemed to see the form ofmy friend, Lieutenant Chr—. As the door was locked Iexclaimed, fully persuaded of the reality of the figure, “ Howcame you here, in God's name? " The apparition gazed fixedlyAND ILLUSIONS. 97at me, as I at it, and vanished in a few seconds. I sprang upand examined the door, which I found locked on the inside, andI could in nowise explain the occurrence, as I believed myselfto be fully awake. According to my usual habit I was studying,and absorbed in the book I was reading, but was nevertheless,as I certainly believe, fully awake. The impression came frommy friend Chr- in whose company I had been five or sixdays previously. I knew there was a duel before him, butnothing more. At the moment when I had the hallucinationmy friend was no longer living, although I was ignorant of thefact. On the morning of the previous day he had been woundedin a duel, and died a few hours later, before noon. I first heardof his death on the morning after I had seen the apparition, athalf-past seven o'clock. In a talk we had had together-Chranother friend, F. , and myself-about three or four weeksbefore, we promised each other (on our oath) that if there wasa life after death the first to die would give the others a sign, toassure them of the fact of an existence beyond the grave. Thethird, F., has died since, but without giving me any sign, andhe on his part had received no sign from Chr— As regardsthe details of the apparition, my friend appeared to me in fulluniform, and just as I knew him in life, even to his pleasantexpression, though the gaze was fixed. He stood perfectly stillfor a moment before me, and then vanished. Although thelamp was covered with a dark green metal shade, and the upperpart of the room was therefore but dimly lighted,' the figureseemed to me unnaturally distinct, as though it were lightedup from some other source.2(S. P.R. Collection, 579. 24. ) "C'était à Milan, le 10 ( 22 )Octobre, 1888. Je demeurais à l'hôtel Ancora. Après le dîner,vers 7 heures, j'étais assis sur le sofa et je lisais une gazette.Ma femme se reposait dans la même chambre sur une couchette,derrière un rideau. La chambre était éclairée par une lampeplacée sur la table, auprès de laquelle j'étais assis et lisais.Tout-à- coup je vis sur le fond de la porte, qui se trouvait en face¹ While the book on which the percipient, Dr. H. Grgazing was, of course, intensely lighted up.was2 Compare the account in Brierre de Boismont (Des hallucinations,pp. 391 et seq. ) of the apparition of Ficinus, to which the above casebears a very close resemblance.798HALLUCINATIONSde moi, la figure de mon père; il était, comme toujours, ensurtout noir, très pale, comme mourant."(S.P.R. Collection , 83. 21. ) “ I sat one evening reading,when, on looking up from my book, I distinctly saw a schoolfriend of mine, to whom I was very much attached, standingnear the door. I was about to exclaim at the strangeness of hervisit, when, to my horror, there were no signs of any one in theroom but my mother. I related what I had seen to her, knowing she could not have seen, as she was sitting with her backtowards the door, nor did she hear anything unusual, and wasgreatly amused at my scare, suggesting I had read too muchor been dreaming. "The following case may perhaps also be explainedin the same way: -(Munich Collection, xv. 2. ) " I remember distinctly--- I musthave been thirty- seven years old at the time, and was still in theService that I was sitting at my writing-table when I seemedto hear a voice calling out some words to me. On getting upand looking about for the servant I found the whole houseempty, nor was there any one on the street (five in the afternoon) . When I tried to think whose the voice resembled, Ifound that it had sounded distinctly like that of my deceasedgrandmother (on the mother's side) . The words that she haduttered chimed in with my thoughts, and that was what had sosurprised me when I heard them. ”If it be objected that we are assuming too much,and exaggerating the hypnogenic tendency of prolonged reading, I may point to the fact that it is at leasta matter of common knowledge, and that reading is ameans popularly employed to induce sleep, whetheras a prelude to the afternoon nap or by candlelight in bed. Thus the mother of the percipient,in the case mentioned above (S.P.R. Collection,83. 21 ) , attributed her daughter's strange experienceto the fact that she " had read too much, or beendreaming." An explanation of the way in whichAND ILLUSIONS. 99fixed attention brings about dissociation, or, in termsof physiology, the splitting off of the neural elements,will be found in Chapter V.It has been already observed that fixation of theeyes associated with automatic movements is liableto produce dissociation. In the following cases thestrain of working at sewing seems to have acted inthe same way as gazing on a mirror, and to have produced a short twilight of consciousness.(Munich Collection , xxiii. ) On the 15th of March, 1878, atten o'clock at night, I saw an apparition of myself. One of thechildren was sleeping restlessly, I took the lamp to see if any- thing was wrong. As I drew back the curtain which shut offthe bedroom, I saw two paces from me the image of myselfstooping over the end of the bed, in a dress which I had notbeen wearing for some time: the figure was turned threequarters away from me, the attitude expressed deep grief. . .I was neither specially sad nor specially excited that evening,and had been thinking about quite ordinary things. I wasalone a friend who had been with me had left about half- anhour before, and I had been working at the sewing- machine.I was quite calm, in good health, ' and thirty- nine years old.Three months before I had lost one of my children . It has justoccurred to me while writing this, that after death my child waslaid across the foot of my bed, and I may have stood in thatattitude then. The dress, too, was the one I was wearing atthe time.2In a few cases the informants state that theyfainted from terror or shock at the apparition. Such¹ Nevertheless the same informant adds:-" I belong to a very healthy family, and was never ill up to my twenty-second year. NowI suffer from extreme nervousness, which may indeed have beenpresent even in 1878, though it had not yet appeared as a definiteailment. "2 Compare, among other cases in the S. P. R. Collection, No. 730.24, and perhaps 442. 17. See Report, Proceedings S.P.R. , August,1894, pp. 233 and 213.100 HALLUCINATIONScommunications remind us so forcibly of the hallucinations of the epileptic and hystero- epilepticaura, that we can hardly resist the conclusion thatthey occurred in a semi-conscious state, possibly ofvery short duration, preceding a state of completeunconsciousness.¹The private opinion of the percipient of the lapseof time between the appearance of the hallucinationand the loss of consciousness is absolutely irrelevant,since in such severe disturbances of consciousnessgross errors in reckoning time are constantly made.The following accounts may be taken as typical.(Munich Collection , iv. ) When my father died I was inPosen ( Czernik bei Posen) , and was three years old. I did notknow him, and did not see him lying dead in his coffin . Thirteenyears later, when I was sixteen, I went out of my paternal housein the snow. I cannot exactly fix the date -perhaps it was Christmas Eve-- at eleven o'clock. Suddenly my father stood beforeme, in a black coat with shining buttons. The coat was a longone, reaching to the feet. He seemed taller than life , and wore ablack cap. I tried to seize hold of him, and received a kind ofelectric shock. The dogs would not bark, and crept about myfeet, whining with their tails between their legs. I fell down ina faint. Several minutes had passed between the dogs showingsigns of excitement and my fainting. . . . There had previously""1 Of the six cases of this kind given in the Report, there are three inwhich it is pretty clear that the loss of consciousness was not theorganic effect " but the cause of the hallucination. Thus one percipient in Australia, almost suffocated by the fumes of charcoal in histent, on going outside to escape them saw a vision of his mother andthen lost consciousness; a second saw an apparition of his father,fainted, and reports that " a severe nervous illness dated from thatevening"; and in a third case a state of nervous agitation is clearlyindicated. Case 728. 16 ( p. 309) , points to a similar explanation, if we consider the striking amnesia of the lady, clearly theprincipal percipient. Her fiance's hallucination would appear to bethe secondary one, caused by the words which she screamed and theshock of seeing her faint away.AND ILLUSIONS. ΙΟΙbeen three taps on the window when we were speaking of myfather. I alone heard the knocks and went out because ofthem. I opened the door, the whining dogs pressed close aboutme; I started and fell down. I did not recognise my father,but I described him, and my conjecture was confirmed. Thedogs refused to be driven out again.""( Munich Collection, xxxix. b. ) On New Year's Eve, 1885-86, in consequence of something I had read, at exactly twelveo'clock I took two lighted candles, one in each hand, and alone,fully awake, feeling rather sceptical and not at all excited , ¹1 That the percipient was not at all excited " is extremely unlikely,if only for the reason that not six months before, on the occasion of herfather's death, she had experienced a " veridical " hallucination, ofwhich, at least , she seems to have spoken pretty often with her family,for she adds in her narrative, 'My relatives never experiencedanything of the kind. . . . My mother assures me that a clockstopped exactly at the moment when death occurred . " Besides, in thecommunication relating to this hallucination the false reckoning of timeat least indicates a state of dream- consciousness. She writes ( MunichCollection, xxxix. a): -" At the time when my father was very seriouslyill, and was lying in a room on the ground- floor, I went upstairs to myroom on the second floor to bed one evening ( 8th July, 1885 ) , at about nine o'clock, accompanied by the nurse. The latter left the room withthe request that I would lie still. She had hardly left the room when I had a feeling as though the bed- clothes were being pulled off. Thishappened twice. I was wide awake, and suddenly saw my fathersitting in his wheeled chair, as he generally did, in a room, butapparently some distance off. I closed my eyes from fright, and thepicture vanished . I lay awake much disturbed, and connected thisexperience with my father's illness. After a short time, about aquarter of an hour, I opened my eyes. Suddenly I saw a white mistlike a shadow pass before them. I screamed aloud, sprang out of bed,and, scantily clad as I was, hurried anxiously downstairs, to see howmy father was. At the foot of the stairs the Sister of Mercy met me,and told me he had just passed away. My father was eighty- one, andmuch enfeebled by age; he had been lying seriously ill for some time,and had been wandering in his mind for eight days. Suddenly, to theSister's astonishment, he called out my name in a clear strong voice.This was ten minutes before his death, just at the time I had thevision. " Let the reader try to imagine the state of mind of any onekeeping the eyes shut for ten to fifteen minutes in a state of anxietyand terror, and he will know what to think of the " short time. "102 HALLUCINATIONShaving first locked the doors of my room, I went and stood infront of the looking- glass. Suddenly I saw in the mirror theform of a tall, haggard-looking man, who approached me withaudible footsteps. I fell down in a faint, and was ill for severaldays. When I came out of the faint the lights had gone out.Further, through their common dependence onexternal stimuli, the content of waking hallucinationsoften bears a resemblance to that of dreams. Thusthe following account, 417. 17 ( Report, pp. 202 etseq.), recalls the dream of a dental operation quotedabove:-Vers 5 heures du matin j'ai vu l'apparition suivante:-Éveilléaprés un sommeil sans rêves, j'éprouvais une terreur paniqueet une stupeur complète sans pouvoir bouger, ni proférer uneparole. . . . Il prit de sa main droite ma main gauche, et y enfonçant ses ongles, ce qui me causa une douleur aiguë, dit àvoix basse. . . . Je ne me suis plus endormi et pendant plusieursjours après cette apparition j'éprouvais [this is the main point]des douleurs neuralgiques et des contractions dans ma maingauche. . . . Des apparitions semblables, mais moins distinctesme sont déjà arrivées plusieurs fois . . . 1880, 1884, 1886, et 1889.Dans tous ces cas les apparitions n'étaient précédées d'aucunemaladie, mais elles amenaient à leur suite des indispositionsphysiques plus ou moins marquées. Je ne puis pas dire quel'état de conscience dans lequel je les ai éprouvées fut tout-àfait normal.And the other cases given in the Report, pp. 203-205, also show this resemblance, while those accountsin which the illusory interpretations of noises, tactileimpressions, etc. , seem to make up the content ofthehallucinations, remind us forcibly of "nerve-stimulusdreams." Such an analogy is of course no proof, buttaken in connection with all the other traces andindications, it serves to help us to a comprehension ofthe hallucinatory state of consciousness.Why it is not always possible to prove Dissociation.AND ILLUSIONS. 103--- Although in these and similar ways a disturbanceof consciousness more or less profound is indicated bythe accompanying circ*mstances in a great numberof these cases, there remain many narratives in whichthere are no direct indications of the kind, and suchdisturbance can only be assumed by a certainstraining of the facts. Must we then suppose, allconsiderations to the contrary notwithstanding, thatin these cases the assurance of the percipient that hewas fully awake at the time is not based on selfdeception? Are we, that is , to judge these narrativesby a different standard from those others in which, aswe have already seen, similar assurances, given withthe same firm conviction on the part of the narrator,proved to be mistaken?""In this connection it is important to remember thatthe narratives are in many cases very meagre, and areoccupied mainly with the content ofthe hallucinationsrather than with the state of consciousness whichaccompanied them. Less attention was paid to thislatter circ*mstance, both in the questions put and insubsequent tabulation of the answers. Experiencesknown to be dreams were excluded from the first bythe form of the main question; and if the experiencecould really be counted as a " waking hallucinationthe attention was naturally directed mainly to itsform and content, and to such points as the exclusionof errors (eg , the mistaking of real objects and persons, illusions), the corroboration of other witnesses,the coincidence of the experiences with other events(death or illness), and such-like. These considerationssufficiently explain the want of evidence for a stateof dissociation. When we come to consider the seriesof twenty-seven coincidental cases, which are nearly104 HALLUCINATIONSall fully described and carefully examined, we shallfind that all but seven narratives contain unmistakable indications of the presence of a state of dreamconsciousness.The difficulty of distinguishing the hallucinatoryexperience from the facts of real life must also betaken into account. Hallucinations tend to take theirplace in the memory alongside of real events, and tobecome indistinguishably merged with them. Thisis illustrated by Bernheim's¹ well-known experiment;a subject was given a waking suggestion that a certain fictitious narrative had been told him by a fellowpatient; whereupon this delusion became associatedwith a genuine experience, and the subject maintainedin proof of what he said that he had heard the storywhen his room- mate came back from the town theevening before bringing him an Easter- egg.Thirdly, the accompanying circ*mstances tend tofade, and the memory remains preoccupied with themore absorbing interest of the astonishing phenomenon itself. If it is often difficult after a short lapseof time to remember the accompanying circ*mstances,even in matters of ordinary perception, and where theattention was fully alert,² how much more after severalyears have passed? Now, of the seven accounts alreadyreferred to, which make no mention of circ*mstancesindicating a state of dream- consciousness, six reſer tooccurrences which had happened more than nine yearspreviously, and the experience is of such a kind thatthe picture preserved in the memory has been constantly modified and touched up, so as to differ widely1 Bernheim, De la Suggestion (2nd edit. ) , chap. ix.2 Compare Hodgson, " The Possibilities of Mal- observation and LapseofMemory," Proceed. S. P.R. , 1886-87 , pp. 381 et seq.AND ILLUSIONS. 105from the actual facts, if indeed it were ever a faithfulrepresentation of facts. Thus frequently, as in thecase of the clergyman (p. 93), the account of thehallucination is misleading, because the time- relationsare incorrectly remembered, and events which werereally simultaneous become successive in thememory.To illustrate this by an example: Suppose thehallucination to have been only a visual one, forinstance, the figure of a woman clad in white standing in front of me to the right. Her position suggeststhat I have seen her glide past me from left to right,and then the impression that I must have seen herfirst on the left will appear to have been preceded bythe sound of a woman's voice, causing me to turn myhead in that direction. The hallucination is in realitya visual perception - a-white- figure- coming- from-theleft-first - seen - there - by- me- on - hearing-a- sound. Inthe memory, however, this " complex " is split up intoelements which are localised separately in time, andbecomes changed into something like the following: -"I was standing alone in the room when I heardmy name called from the left. It was a woman'svoice, and I turned round in surprise. What wasmy astonishment when I saw "-and so on. Theaccount of the apparition of Lieutenant Chr , afterhe had been killed in a duel, was probably a case ofthis kind, where the preliminary tactile hallucinationat least seems likely to have been an illusion ofmemory.How widely this kind of memory illusion operatesit is of course difficult to say; in my opinion far toolittle allowance is made for it. This is borne out byobservations made by careful witnesses. A dream is105 HALLUCINATIONS•soon forgotten unless it be mentally recapitulated andnoted, or told to some one. Ifthis is done the dreammay indeed be remembered and told for years, butstill careful self- observation reveals that it is not somuch the dream images as the memory images fixedimmediately after waking which are recalled.In studying these narratives we must bear all thisin mind, and we must remember further that thenarrators are not always of a critical turn of mind.The frequent recital of an interesting occurrencetends to imprint a distinct picture of it on the mind,and the vividness of the mental image serves furtherto confirm the percipient's conviction of having beenfully awake at the time-a delusion common withpersons in a drowsy, half- asleep condition . It is not,then, much to be wondered at if gradually all subsidiary detail fades away, until finally there remain inthe memory only two points of cardinal importance--the hallucination itself, and the conviction of havingbeen fully awake. For my part, I am inclined towonder less at the rarity of suspicious circ*mstancesin a series of such accounts, than that, all adverseinfluences notwithstanding, so many and such clearindications of dissociation of consciousness still remain.Even the cases which do not directly support myview may, by the following analysis, as I still hopeto show, be brought into harmony with it. For ingeneral, the more recent the case, the less improbabledoes it appear from the narrative itself that the phenomena recorded were not hallucinations, but eitherillusions or objective sensory perceptions mistakenlysupposed to be subjective.¹ Compare Report, p. 66.AND ILLUSIONS. 107Realistic Apparitions of Living Persons.Within the last three months99·previous nine months }35Doubtful cases, 816¹4 99 دو"" "" 13 five years "" ""ten "" 60Over one year, but not over five years 6299 8The Report explains this falling-off by assumingthat the " doubtful " cases make less impression andare soon forgotten; but I see no grounds for such anassumption, since the percipients in these cases, noless than in the others, were convinced of the genuineness of their experiences. To me it seems the truer explanation that in the more recent cases the accountsare more detailed; in the older ones all accompanying circ*mstances which might throw doubt on thegenuineness of the hallucination have disappeared, ¹such as, e.g. , the state of the light and the physicalsurroundings, or any indications of a state of dreamconsciousness on the part of the percipient.Hallucinations classified accordingto the sense affected.-In passing on to another point, we must consider theshare of various senses in the hallucinations. According to Table II. d. they are reckoned as follows:-Hallucinations of a single sense · 7 1890VisualAuditory .Tactile1114629147Hallucinations simultaneously affecting several senses 271 Visual and auditory 181Visual and tactile •Visual and olfactory38IAuditory and tactileVisual, auditory, and tactileAll four senses1 Note in this connection that of the 12 cases of visual hallucinations,none more than a fortnight old, given on p. 7 of the Report, 7 are regarded as doubtful.2129I108 HALLUCINATIONSThe Less Startling Hallucinations are soon forgotten.-These figures seem to me, however, to show not somuch that our hallucinations visit us most in visualpictorial form, but rather that the less striking sensoryperceptions are easily overlooked, or if recognised asdelusions, are soon forgotten; while the remarkableand striking ones, and especially the visual phantasms,remain longer in the memory. This view is supportedalso by the fact that among rudimentary hallucinations (not fully developed, lights, vague objects, andsounds) the visual preponderate, simply because thegreat mass of obscure and partially projected hallucinations of the other senses fade from the memorysooner and more completely. This is shown stillmore clearly by a comparison of the hallucinationsreported as occurring within the last ten years withthose remembered from the time previous to thatperiod. (Tables V. a, VI. a, VII. )Visual hallucinations within the last ten years"" of more than ten years ago .· 458486Auditory hallucinations within the last ten years . 24727 "9more than ten years ago(rather more than half) · · 137دوTactile hallucinations within the last ten yearsmore than ten years ago· 97· 4I99(less than half) .We find further confirmation of this view in the fact,arrived at from the figures given in the Report, that thehallucinations recorded for the last year amounted, inthe case of the visual experiences, to 18.9 per cent. ofthe whole number recorded for the last ten years, andin the case of tactile and auditory hallucinationsWe find the respectively to 21.9 and 29.1 per cent.same characteristic in the auditory hallucinationsrecorded in Table VI. a.

AND ILLUSIONS. 109Of the less striking cases, in which the narratorheard only his name called, or only indistinct voices,148 are reported as occurring within the last ten years,and only 53 within the previous period. On the otherhand, almost as many of the more striking auditoryhallucinations, in which other words or sentences wereheard, are recorded as occurring in the earlier period,as the 69 in the last ten years. Again, when thevoice was recognised as that of a living or of a deadperson, the relative numbers ( 164 new cases to 97old) indicate that the experience is more readilyremembered than when the voice was not recognised(83:40).

• 66

Since, as we shall see later, there are good groundsfor supposing that simple, non- complicated hallucinations are more frequent than those which are fullydeveloped and distinctly projected, but that, as isnatural, and as the tables show, they are scarcelynoted and soon slip from the memory, we may conclude that waking hallucinations " in sane personsare much more frequent phenomena than appearsfrom the tables. Even should the percentage ofaffirmative answers on a more searching analysisbe further lowered, still it is to be noted that theresult refers only to the remembered experiences. Itwould be ridiculous to reckon the number of dreamsbythe number remembered, ¹ but it would be scarcelyless misleading to apply the same method of calculation to waking hallucinations.1 Let the reader try to remember his dreams of more than a year ago.Unless exceptionally well practised in calling to mind such experienceshe will hardly be in a position to remember any great number of them clearly.CHAPTER IV.THE PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESS IN FALLACIOUSPERCEPTION.Early Attempts at Explanation-The Centrifugal Psychic Theories - Objections The Centrifugal SensorialTheories-The Conception underlying all CentrifugalTheories--Arguments against this Conception—Centripetal Theories--Identity of the Sensory and IdeationalCentres―Theories of Pelman and Kandinsky-FalsePerception a Phenomenon conditioned by disturbedAssociation -Meynert -James-Explanation suggestedby the Author--Its Advantages—Schematic Presentation of the Physiological Process in False PerceptionVarious Objections met.THE first attempts to explain the physiologicalprocess in false perception were very vague andgeneral. It was clear that to account for the morecomplex hallucinations-i.e. , those affecting severalsenses-the morbid condition was to be soughtoutside the sense organs. No doubt Joh. Müller's¹doctrine of the specific energies of the nerves madeit possible to explain how subjcctive sensory perceptions might appear as objective, and when it wasonce assumed that subjective sensations were theresult of inadequate stimuli, the same explanationreadily suggested itself in the case of hallucination;but it was urged against this view that while rudi-¹ Joh. Müller, Ueber phantast. Gesichtserscheinungen, 1826; Zur vergleich. Physiol. des Gesichtssinns, 1836. For a short abstract seeSchüle, Handbuch d. Geisteskrankheiten, 1878, pp. 136 et seq.HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS. IIImentary phenomena, such as sparks, flashes, colours,singing in the ears, etc. , may originate in this way,inadequate stimuli can never result in " compleximages, arranged in orderly perspective," or words,though these play so great a part in hallucinations.If, for instance, in the subjective dream- image of atree only a corresponding subjective excitation of thesensory nerve were necessary, then, as Neumann¹ haspointed out, a portion of the optic fibres would have tobe stimulated in such a way that their arrangementshould exactly correspond to the image of a tree, or tothe image of the space not occupied by the tree (alight tree on a dark, a dark tree on a light ground).If we consider the great number of possible combinations, among the myriad fibres spread over theretinal surface (100 primitive fibres to the squareline), such a result seems highly problematical. Inthe same way the formation of an articulate wordwould be barely probable, that of a sentence practically impossible.²Hence the search in this direction was soonabandoned. The older writers indeed confine themselves for the most part to vague generalities, with¹ Neumann, Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie, § 142, 143.2 Leubuscher, Ueber die Entstehung der Sinnestäuschungen, 1852, p.29. Compare Griesinger , op. cit. , pp. 87 et seq.3 Thus Bottex, op. cit. , p. 12, believes that hallucinations, likedreams, are the result of an irritation of several parts of the brain, nowof one and now of another, which are momentarily not under the control of the will. J. B. Friedrich, " Einige Worte über den psycholog.Werth der Sinnestäuschungen, " Fr. Arch: f. Physiol. , 1834 , vol. ii . ,maintains that hallucinations depend on an abnormal state of thesensorium which arrests the freedom of the will and the power ofjudgment. Brierre de Boismont, op. cit. , chap. 17, points out reasonswhich tell a priori against the dependence of fallacious perception onspecific anatomical disturbances, and quotes Lélut, Calmeil, and Leuret in support of his view. REESELIBRAOF THE UNIVERSITOFCALIFORNIA112 HALLUCINATIONStwo distinguished exceptions, Erasmus Darwin andFoville, who attribute a semi- sensorial character tothe morbid affection, which they locate partly withinand partly outside the sense organs, and express theview that not only the nerve tract between the organand the brain is affected, but that the more complicated hallucinations of several senses can beexplained only by assuming the implication of thosebrain- centres at least in which the sensory nervesoriginate. Macario distinguishes various kinds ofhallucinations and assigns them various sites.¹Although, as time went on, attention was directedmore and more to this problem, no explanation hasyet been offered which has met with general acceptance, as the numerous attempts at a theory ofhallucination sufficiently testify. In considering themost important of these attempts, in discussing thevarious views advanced and the arguments used tosupport them, we shall make ourselves acquaintedwith the leading facts, and thus be in a position toform an independent judgment.Two main points had to be considered in theelucidation of the problem: on the one hand thesensory character of the phenomenon, on the otherthe great part played by temperament, mental and1 Macario, in the Ann. Méd. psych. , Nov. 1845, Jan. 1846, distinguishes hallucinations as follows: firstly, external or sensorial hallucinations, which originate in the sensory nerve; secondly, those which areganglionic, resulting from lesions of the great sympathetic nerve (e.g. ,frequently in hypochondriacs); thirdly, those which are intuitive, orcaused by " inner " vision ( for instance, in ecstasy and hysteria); andlastly, sthenic hallucinations which arise from heightened sensibility, andshould be regarded as a neurosis of the sensory nerves ( e.g. , the visualhallucinations of watchmakers, auditory hallucinations in the case ofcooks who spend a great part of their lives in hot kitchens) .AND ILLUSIONS. 113emotional bias, education , superstition , the spirit ofthe times, etc. , in determining what the hallucinatoryobject should be, and investing it with form andcolour. Supposing the ideational centres to be locallyseparated from the sensory centres, it was natural toascribe the imaginative factor in fallacious perceptionto the higher elements of the cerebral cortex , and torelegate the sensory part to those cells where, inpopular parlance, incoming " impressions are transformed into sensations. " As to the locality and extentof these centres, and indeed of most others, there isa conflict of views. However, the first question toanswer was not where are these centres situated, butwhat is it which, in hallucination, where no normalstimulus is present, starts in these centres the processof which we become conscious as a sense- perception.Centrifugal Psychic Theories. -Many writers ascribed, and many still ascribe, the initial impulse tothe ideational centres. On this view, either theactivity of these centres must be increased beyondthe normal to admit of their giving rise to an effectivestimulus, or we must postulate a higher degree ofirritability for the " inner sensory areas," which wouldlend exceptional effectiveness to ideational stimuliin ordinary circ*mstances inadequate.The chief justification for this view is the fact thatsensory hallucinations occur even when the sensorium (assumed to be sub- cortical) is wholly destroyed. Again, the accounts of voluntarily- induced1 Luys, Fournier, and Ritti believe the process to occur chiefly in theoptic thalami; Schröder van der Kolk, Meynert, and Kandinsky wouldplace the centres lower down-that of vision, for instance, in thecorpora quadrigemina; Hitzig, Ferrier, Munk, and others locate themin the cortex itself.8114 HALLUCINATIONShallucinations, the fact that many patients areconscious of their imagination being the source oftheir sensory delusions, the decrease of hallucinations during increasing mental weakness, and theiralmost entire absence in cases of idiocy, seem to pointin the same direction . Further, the influence of memoryand experience in determining the character of thesensory delusions is cited in support of this view, andalso the fact that the sense of hearing is speciallyliable to hallucinations-the sense, that is, whichplays a more important part than any other in ourpsychical life, since we think in words and expressour thoughts in words.²In a certain sense we may even reckon Joh. Müller³among the exponents ofthis theory, since he assumedthe existence in the brain of an organ for the production of imaginary images (the " Phantasticon ") ,and believed it to control the innermost springs ofvision. So also Möller, who considers hallucinationsto result from the elaboration in the mind of a singlemore or less persistent recollection, which afterwards1 Compare Goethe's power to call up the hallucination of an unfolding flower. Brierre de Boismont, op. cit. , mentions the case of anartist who after one sitting was able to go on painting the portrait of hissitter by the aid of the hallucinatory image which he could call up atwill. Griesinger cites the case of an insane person who heard voices,and who found that he could put any words he liked into the mouth ofthe imaginary beings who conversed with him ( Holland, Chapter onMental Physiol. , p. 52 ); and Sandras, Ann. Méd. psych. ( 1855 ), p.542, records his own hallucinations, which rendered his thoughtsaudible to him and answered his questions, but always according to hiswishes. For further examples see below.2 Von Krafft- Ebing, Die Sinnesdelirien ( Erlangen , 1864) .3 Joh. Müller, Phantast. Gesichtserscheinungen, § 138.4 Möller, Anthropol. Beiträge zur Erfahrungder psych. Krankheiten( 1837) , pp. 507 et seq.AND ILLUSIONS. 115penetrates into the organs of sight and hearing; andFalret, who speaks of a " lésion de l'imagination ." ¹Griesinger is led to the conclusion that it is ideaswhich initiate and guide the sensory activities, mainlybecause certain individuals can voluntarily call uphallucinations, because, that is to say, vivid mentalimages deliberately conjured up and dwelt upon areoften recognised as the exciting cause of sensorydelusions.Griesinger's deduction is shortly as follows:-66 As in normal sensory activity the effect produced by real external stimuli on the nervous system is, in so- called eccentric phenomena," referred back to the part of the peripheryusually excited , so a similar projection is manifested by ideaswhich owe their origin only to sensations. In this latter case,however, the process does not extend to the nervous surfaceand thence outwards, but only to the region of the excitingcause-i.e. , the sensorium. It is apparently on this eccentricprojection of ideas that their constant reinforcement by sensoryimages depends, and to the same cause is doubtless also duethat faint subsidiary hallucination in the central sense organwhich accompanies all thought, to which indeed thought owesits clearness and colour, those stores of sensory imagery inwhich we all to some extent share. It supplies the foundationfor all those psychical phenomena which are assigned to theimagination, so that all imaginative processes may be said to1 Falret, op. cit. , " En parlant des lésions de l'imagination nous nevoulons dire qu'une chose, à savoir: que l'hallucination se rattache à unemodification cérébrale analogue à celle qui dans l'état normal accompagne l'action de l'imagination . " Hallucination, he adds, is distinguished from other morbid activities of the brain, which also havetheir analogies in normal experience, by the want of control whichinvariably appears when the imagination is abnormally active, andfurther bythe involuntary nature of the phenomena and the sudden,disconnected manner of their appearing.2 Griesinger, op. cit. , pp. 29 and 91 .3 Kahlbaum, " Die Sinnesdelirien , " Allg. Zeitschr. f. Psych. , xxiii. ,describes this process as " Reperception . "116 HALLUCINATIONSconsist merely in more or less lively reverberations in thesensorium. Hallucination differs only in degree from thisnormal activity of the imagination. In the former process, theintensity with which the projected ideas act on the sensorycentre causes something to take place there which normallyoccurs only as a result of external excitation -viz. , an actof sensation.¹Following Griesinger's theory, Von Krafft- Ebing 2writes: " Hallucination is the result of an excitationof the central apparatus of a sensory nerve by anadequate ideational stimulus sufficient to give theforce of a sense- impression to the answering excitation which is projected outwards." Hoffmann³ says:-"Representative images occasionally manifest themselves so energetically that they may even penetrateinto the perceptive sphere and arouse it to activity.When a representative image in the brain acts upon.the central filaments of the sensory nerves it iseccentrically projected, and results in a hallucination. ”Kahlbaum belongs also to this school, for besidesextra-cerebral phenomena depending on processes inthe periphery and the sense-nerves (Phænacismen) ,and perception- hallucinations which occur either as

stable, as erethic, or as functional phenomena, and are

produced, according to him, in the affected gangliaeither through extensive changes (disturbances ofcirculation, for instance) involving chronic stimulation ,¹ Compare the statement of this view by Gurney and Myers, " ATheory of Apparitions, " Proceedings of the S. P. R. , vol. ii. , 1883-84,pp. 168, 169.2 Krafft- Ebing, op. cit. , p. 11; compare p. 8; also Lehrbuch( 1879) , i . p. 92.3 Hoffmann, Die Physiol. der Sinneshallucination, pp. 19 and 23 .Kahlbaum, op. cit.AND ILLUSIONS. 117or through minor changes which become effectiveonly because of the functional activity of the images(Phantomien)—in addition to all these kinds ofhallucinations he considers that there are others dueto a rise of centrifugal sensory activity (Phantasmien). With those he would class fallacies of onesense originated by a normal effect produced inanother sense, as, for instance, when an insane personthinks he is being " stitched in " or " embroidered in "when he sees people sewing, or on catching sight of along pole feels himself being drawn out lengthwise.¹In explanation, Kahlbaum assumes an increase ofcentrifugal irritability in a particular sense which isaroused into activity through the general excitationof the consciousness resulting from the first centripetal perceptional process (on the analogy of reflexmovements he calls these reflex hallucinations).Lastly, he adds another class, viz. , hallucinationsof memory (Phantorhemien).Next, Kraepelin² distinguishes ( a) elementary sensedeceptions peripherally conditioned, (b) perceptionphantasms which originate through inadequatestimuli (changes in the circulation, poisons, etc. ) inthe centres of perception (hypnagogic hallucinations in1 Most cases of this kind are indeed rather to be regarded as reflexinsane ideas. The following case of Janet's ( “ L'anesthésie Hystérique "in the Arch. de Neurologie, 1892, No. 69 ) is, however, a genuinereflex or " apperception " hallucination . "When I show you the colourblue you will hear bells ringing, " Professor Janet said to Isabella, ahysterical subject blind on the left side. Then when her right eye(the normal one) had been blindfolded , various coloured wools were held before her left eye. At first she said everything was dark; but assoon as a piece of blue wool was held up she cried, " Oh, I hear bells. "Many hypnotic and post-hypnotic hallucinations à échéance might bereferred to this class.2 Kraepelin, Psychiatrie, pp. 70-85.118 HALLUCINATIONSthe sane, and in the insane fixed monotonous hallucinations, generally independent of the train of thought;Kahlbaum's " stable " hallucinations); lastly (c),memory images of special vividness. He explains these"apperception" hallucinations much as Griesingerexplains them, and groups with them Baillarger's"psychical " hallucinations, the " pseudo- hallucinations " of Hagen, and also the hallucinatory reverberation called " double thinking." For it is easy toexplain such a continuous procession of sensoryfallacies following the train of thought step by step,on the assumption of reperception, and of a heightenedirritability of the inner sensory tracts. Alongside"apperception hallucinations" he places "apperceptionillusions " (in the sane the illusions caused by strongemotion, expectation , etc.; and in the insane, besidesthese, reflex hallucinations).One of the principal exponents of this view is H.Taine, ¹ who explains hallucinations as arising whenthe inner images are deprived of their usual “ reductives" (signes réducteurs), and thus appear assensible realities. I quote the following from hisbrilliant exposition of the theory:-" In ordinary cases a disturbance of the nerves produces thisaction, but if it is otherwise produced it will arise without theintervention of the nerves, and we shall have a true sensation ,that of a green table, or of the sound of a violin, without anytable or violin having acted on our eyes or ears. Thus settingaside the medium of the nerves, we find two cases in which thecentres of sensation act. First, having been set in action bythe nerve, they may persist in this action spontaneously, andrepeat it of themselves after the nerve has ceased to act. Thisis notably the case with illusions following on the prolongeduse of the microscope, when the micrographist resting his eyes1 Taine, De L'Intelligence, vol. i . , beok ii . , chap. i.AND ILLUSIONS. 119on his table or paper sees about a foot off small grey figureswhich persist, vanish, and reappear, continually growing paler and feebler. Secondly, the centres of sensation may actthrough a reflected shock, when pure mental images arousetheir activity.. Usually it is the sensation which provokes theimage, and the transmitted action of the sensorium which isrepeated in the cerebral lobes or hemispheres: here, on thecontrary, the image excites the sensation repeated in the centres of sensation . This is probably the case in hypnagogicand psycho- sensorial hallucinations.¹"If I may be permitted a homely metaphor, let us call theconducting nerve a bell-rope, attached to a large bell, thecentre of sensation; when the rope is pulled the bell rings;here we have a sensation. This bell, thanks to an imperfectlyunderstood mechanism, communicates by various threads, thefibres of the optic thalami and the corpora striata, with asystem of little bells, which make up the hemispheres, andwhose mutually excitable tinklings exactly repeat its soundswith their pitch and tone. These tinklings are images. Whenthe bell rings it sets the tinklings a- going, and when its ringingis over the tinklings continue, growing weaker and dying away,but may increase in volume and regain all their first energywhen a favourable circ*mstance permits the persisting sound of one or two of the little bells to cause all the others to vibratein unison."In hallucinations of the microscope the large bell has beenso powerfully and constantly set vibrating in one direction thatit* mechanism continues to act even when the cord is hangingmotionless. In dreams and hypnagogic hallucinations the cordis relaxed; it no longer acts, the constant demands of thewaking hours has used up its power of responding; externalobjects pull in vain , they no longer cause the bells to ring.But, on the other hand, the little bells, whose appeals have beenrepressed while we were awake, and whose pullings have beenannulled by the more energetic pulling of the bell - rope, regainall their power, ring louder and pull more effectually. Their1 By "psycho-sensorial " hallucinations Baillarger means false perceptions with a pronounced sensory character, while he designates as' psychical " the so- called soundless voices, for instance. Binet hassuggested for the first group the apter term, cerebro- sensorial.66120 HALLUCINATIONSmovements excite corresponding vibrations in the large bell.Thus the life of man is divided into two portions-the wakingstate, in which the large bell responds to the cord, and sleep,wherein it responds to the little bells. In morbid hallucinations the bell - rope still acts, but its effort is overcome by thegreater power of the little bells; and various causes, a flow ofblood, inflammation of the brain, haschisch-all circ*mstancesindeed which render the hemispheres more active-tend toproduce these phenomena. The appeals of the little bells,which in the normal state are more feeble than those of thecord, have become stronger, and the ordinary equilibrium isupset, because one of the functions has assumed an ascendencyto which it is not entitled ."3Among other authors who express themselves tothe same effect are Esquirol, ¹ Brierre de Boismont,2Neumann, Reil, E. Pohl, R. Leubuscher, Schroedervan der Kolk, Schaller, Emminghaus, L. Meyer,10Wijsman, " Friedmann,12 and many others. As theirpresentations of the theory agree for the most partwith those already quoted, and differ mainly in thearrangement of the evidence, and in the differentlocalities which they assign to the ideational centres,1 Esquirol, op. cit.2 Brierre de Boismont, Des hallucinations.3 Neumann, Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie, § 201 et seq.4 Reil, Rhapsodien.5 Pohl, Die Melancholie nach dem neuesten Standpunkt der Physi ologie.6 Leubuscher, Ueber die Entstehung der Sinnestäuschungen.7 Schroeder van der Kolk, Pathologie und Therapie der Geisteskrank- heiten (1863).8 Schaller, Die Hallucination ( 1867; Diss. ) .9 Emminghaus, Allg. Psychopathologie.10 L. Meyer ( Hamburg) , Ueber den Charakter der Hallucination bei Geisteskranken.11 Wijsman, Geneesk Tijdschr. voor Nederl. Ind. , xxiv. 87. , 244(1884).12 Friedmann, Ueber den Wahn ( 1894) , ii . p . 35 , Note.AND ILLUSIONS. 121it is not necessary to consider them in detail, and II shall now turn at once to the criticisms of the theoryand to the views to which these objections lead us.Arguments against the Psychic Theories. -Thefollowing is a brief summary of the chief objections urged against the theory we have just beenconsidering, which regards hallucinations as evoked .in consequence of exceptionally vivid ideationalimages penetrating into the region of sense, or,in terms of physiology, as the result of a current ofcentrifugal energy from the cells of the cortex excitingthe basal ganglia into activity.1. However vivid and energetic an ideational imagemay be, it can never receive the stamp of sensoryreality. Schüle¹ cites Fechner's experiments, andconcludes that ideas of sensation can never rise to thelevel of sensation itself, that the want of the feeling ofsensory affection leaves a gap which no psychic intention can bridge over. Kandinsky insists that " awhole gulf" separates hallucinations, as well asnormal sensory perceptions, from even the liveliestideas. Among others, Meynert has perhaps expressedhimself most emphatically on this point."¹ Schüle, op. cit. , p. 140.2 Fechner, Elemente der Psychophysik, ii . pp. 469 et seq.3 Vict. Kandinsky, Kritische und klinische Betrachtung im Gebietder Sinnestäuschungen ( 1885) , pp. 135 et seq.4 66 Stricker, Ueber Sinnestauschungen, " Wien. Med. Blatter, 1878,p. 133, quotes the utterance of Hume that " the poet, even with themost glowing colours of his craft, cannot so depict a scene that hisdescription should be taken for a real landscape. The liveliest thoughtsdo not reach to the dimmest impressions. "5 Th. Meynert, " Ueber die Gefühle " in the Sammlung vonpopulärwissenschaftlichen- Vorträgen über den Bau und die Leistung desGehirns, pp. 44 et seq.122 HALLUCINATIONS" The mnemonic image of the most terrible burn is not to becompared in intensity, as regards its effect on the skin, with the faintest touch of a feather. The mental picture of the sun'sbright disc has less to do with an impression of light than theleast conceivable fraction of the glow- worm's faint radiance.The ear- splitting roar of a cannon as a mere image in thememory has less power to affect the sense than the immeasurablyminute sound of a hair falling upon water. And though theseimages in the memory are caused in the first instance by sensoryimpressions, they have nevertheless as little in common withsuch impressions as an algebraic sign with the object for whichit stands."2. It is difficult to refer to ideational excitationvisions which mock at all experience, the vision, forinstance, of a blue dog, but it is easy to connect such anappearance with an illusory perception of a subjectiveimpression of blue light. This view finds further supportin the partiality which hallucinations seem to displayfor the primary colours, blue, red, and yellow (Hagen).3. If an energetic ideational stimulus could arousea corresponding activity in the sensory centres, hallucinations, and especially voluntary hallucinations,would be much more frequent phenomena of sane lifethan they are ( Hagen).Centrifugal Sensorial Theories. -In order to escapethese difficulties, Hagen¹ refers the seat of hallucination to the subcortical sensory centres.It is true that the seat ofthe excitation may be in the externalsense organs or in the nerve path from the organ to the brain(e.g., when flashes of light are seen in diseases of the retina,or auditory hallucinations experienced in diseases of the ear²),1 Hagen, Die Sinnestäuschungen in Bezug auf Psychologie, Heil- kunde und Rechtspflege ( 1837); also the article " Zur Theorie der Hallucinationen," Allg. Zeitschr. f. Psych. , xxv. ( 1868 ) , in which he develops and to some extent modifies his views.2xxiv.Köppe, " Gehörstörungen u. Psychosen, " Allg. Zeitschr. f. Psych. ,AND ILLUSIONS. 12366but it would be going too far to explain all hallucinationsthrough physical affections of the sensory outposts. For, in thefirst place, no abnormality can be discovered in the majority ofsuch cases; and next, even where such abnormality, and a consequent weakening of sensibility, is present, hallucinations arerarely found; thirdly, fallacies of perception may occur when thesensory nerves have been destroyed; and fourthly, a strongargument against this view is the intimate connection of hallucinations with psychoses and neuroses. In most cases, therefore, the seat of the hallucinatory process is to be sought in the sensorium, which is in a highly excited state, so that stimuliplaying upon it give rise to an exceptionally energeticfunctional manifestation in the efferent nerves proceedingfrom it, a manifestation which, as a rule, is wholly divorcedfrom the control of the will. " In a nerve leading to amuscle this is called cramp. "Hallucination is cramp ofthe sensory nerves." The same effect, it is true, may also beproduced by any stimulating substance in the sensorium, butsuch a cause is not easy to prove, and it is safer to assume astate of increased excitability, not in the sense of hyperæsthesia,but of a nervous congestion ( Turgor), a tension of the nerveorgan tending to relieve itself by centrifugal discharge. Insupport ofthis view Hagen cites the tendency of hallucinations tovanish on closing the eyes or darkening the room, the occurrenceof elementary as also of unilateral hallucinations, and speciallythe frequency of visions , voices, etc. , in epilepsy, and all statescharacterised by great convulsibility—that is to say, by a tendency of the nerve centres to centrifugal discharge, —andgenerally in diseases of which " cramp " is a possible symptom.The changes thus taking place in the peripheral organ or thesensorium may either be interpreted correctly or misinterpreted,and thus transformed into illusions. It is often reported, forinstance, that rudimentary sensations of light or sound appearfirst, and that the hallucinatory forms and words are only de- veloped from them later. On the other hand, it sometimeshappens that the imagination plays a part in the process fromthe beginning, some dominant image in the mind entering intoand transforming the hallucinatory product. Such a processmay be conceived as analogous to Romberg's " co-ordinatedcramp." The impulse, motor in the latter case, is here ideational, and just as the psychic intention can in the one case give124 HALLUCINATIONSrise to a muscular spasm, so in the other the ideational activitymay cause a cramp of the sensory nerves. But it is not so muchthe idea in the mind as the heightened convulsibility of the subcortical centres which is the real cause of the hallucination.¹Hagen's view is adopted, amongst others, bySchüle, who has further elaborated it.If, he argues, in cases in which hallucinations occur after blindness and atrophy of the optic nerve of many years standing( Rudolphi), or with softening of the thalami ( Esquirol) , we assumethat the co-operation, anatomical and physiological, ofthe "sense"is essential, we must suppose that the sensory tract in all its ramifications is involved with the cortical sphere in a pathologicalreaction. It is improbable, however, that the whole of thenerve path is implicated, and if we assume an intellectualisingof the perceptions as they ascend the degree of sensory qualityin a hallucination may be taken as a functional expression of thedistance from the periphery of the nerve concerned." Thetimbre ofthe hallucination is the auscultation product ofits morecentral or more peripheral nature." An irradiation which extends as far as the peripheral organ attains to full sensoryexpression. " The more central the stimulus the more inwardand intellectual the tone." The pathological process may beconceived as a condition of heightened irritability with a specificmorbid function: two causes may be assigned for this heightenedirritability— ( a) a weakening of the cortical inhibition and consequent increased independence of the sensory centres; ( b) directheightening of the irritability, generally resulting from somedisturbance of assimilation. The specific nature of the sensoryaffection is to be regarded as cramp ( Hagen³).1 In completing our historical survey it may be worth while to notethat Grohmann ( whom Hagen quotes) supposes a disposition to visual hallucinations in abnormal states of the venous blood, and to auditoryhallucinations in abnormal states of the arterial blood. He also thinksthat heart disease predisposes to visual hallucinations.2 Schüle, op. cit. , pp. 136-148.3 Be it noted, however, that Hagen's comparison of hallucinationwith cramp is misleading, if only for this reason: in the motor nervesthe functional activity proceeds in a normal direction , while the process supposed to take place in the sensory nerves is reversed.AND ILLUSIONS. 125Fundamental Conceptions underlying all the Centrifugal Theories.-Before proceeding further it wouldbe well to consider how these various writers wereled to suppose a centrifugal process in hallucination, and to adopt a hypothesis which, especiallyat first, seems directly opposed to all physiologicaltheories.1. Since hallucinations in the psychological viewwere images of the memory or imagination whichhad attained to sensory vividness, and since thecentres of ideation were now always conceived asthe higher centres, it was necessary to assumea refluent impulse from the cortex to the sensorium, nor indeed were other indications of sucha process wanting, for, as Griesinger had alreadypointed out, all thinking, all imagining, is accompanied by faint sensory echoes.2. Hagen and the exponents of the sensorial theorywere also led to suppose a centrifugal discharge, not,it is true, on the grounds just stated, but through thetheory of "eccentric projection," then generallyaccepted and held to explain why the hallucinatoryimage is located in the external world.3. A great number of cases were adduced whichit seemed impossible to explain except on thehypothesis that the retina was also involved in thehallucination. Many writers (Griesinger, KrafftEbing, Schüle, Despine, and Tamburini ¹ ) go so faras to assume in the case of a full -fledged hallucinationa centrifugal current reaching to the peripheral organ.1 Griesinger, op. cit. , p. 90.2 Krafft-Ebing, Die Sinnesdelirien, p. 11 .3Despine, Etude scientifique sur le somnambulisme.4 Tamburini in Revue scientif. ( 1881 ) , p. 139.126 HALLUCINATIONSSergi¹ goes a step further and assumes in everysensory perception a refluent wave. Lombroso andOttolenghi have adopted his extreme view. Theresults of Monakow's researches seem to furnish ananatomical basis for this theory. His descriptionof the optical nerve tract is as follows³:"From each optical centre there proceeds a system of fibres,and in each centre a similar system terminates, and the varioussystems of projection-fibres are united through the system of the intermediate cells. Both in the primary and secondarydivisions of the optical tract two systems of fibres run parallelto one another in opposite directions, and the systems of braincells and intermediate cells constantly alternate. " These filamentsystems, he proceeds, are so constructed that the coarser fibresof the optic nerve spring from the large multipolar cells of theretina and break up to form a network in the external geniculatebody; the finer filaments arise in the superficial grey matter ofthe anterior corpora quadrigemina, and end in the retina; theaxis- cylinder prolongations from the majority of the ganglioniccells in the pulvinar and the external geniculate body extend asvisual projection fibres into the cortex of the occipital lobes,where they terminate for the most part in the nerve network ofthe fifth layer and become indirectly connected with the intermediate cells. On the other hand, the great pyramidal cells ofthe third cortical layer send their axis-cylinder prolongationsinto the region of the primary optical centres, where they spread out in a network. Between the primary and the secondaryprojection systems intermediate cells occur in the cortex and inthe substantia gelatinosa of the primary centres.Such a structure would explain another difficultywhich meets us in the theories of hallucination we havejust been considering. It would render plausible theconception of a centripetal current flowing alongsidethe centrifugal stream in the same channel at the1 Sergi, Psychologie physiologique ( 1888) , pp. 99, 189.2 In Revue philosophique, xxix. p. 70.3 Monakow, Arch. für Psych. , xx.AND ILLUSIONS. 127same time, through which the co-operation of thesubcortical ganglia and of the peripheral organ isannounced in the cortex.Nevertheless all the facts urged in support of thishypothesis admit of another explanation. To beginwith, the psychological conception lying at the rootof the whole theory has been already considered andrejected; while, as regards the presumption requiredto establish it, that the subcortical centres participatein all ideational activity, Tigges¹ points to the corollary that an injury to the former would involve aninjury to the ideational process, and shows that such.is not the case, since in subcortical sensorial aphasiadue to disturbances of conduction between the temporal lobes and the centres in the medulla oblongata,though word- deafness occurs, the acoustic imaginationremains intact and there is no loss of spontaneousspeech.Secondly, the " eccentric projection " theory rests,as James has already pointed out,2 on " the confusedassumption that bodily processes which cause a sensation must also be its seat. Sensations have no seatin this sense," he continues, "they become seats foreach other, as fast as experience associates themtogether; but that violates no primitive seat possessedby any one of them. And though our sensationscannot then so analyse and talk of themselves, yet attheir very first appearance quite as much as at anylater date are they cognisant of all those qualitieswhich we end by extracting and conceiving under1 Tigges, " Zur Theorie d . Hallucination , " Allg. Zeitschr. f. Psych.,xlviii. , vol. 4. His argument does not seem to me of much value,however.2 James, op. cit. , ii. pp. 31 et seq.128 HALLUCINATIONSthe names of objectivity, exteriority, and extent. It issurely subjectivity and interiority which are thenotions latest acquired by the human mind. "Lastly, certain cases where the hallucinations movein accordance with the movements of the eye areoften quoted as affording strong proof of a centrifugalcurrent,¹ and also those cases where the appearancesare unilateral, that is to say, where they always occurin the same half of the visual field. Griesinger hasmentioned among other examples the case of a manwho always saw a black goat at his left side. Someof these phenomena may be due to scotoma, etc. , butas a rule there is no reason for supposing that theyare not centrally conditioned. Séguin2 noted suchappearances immediately before the occurrence ofhemianopsy. This is perhaps best explained (seeChapter V.) as a disturbance of the nerve tract which,though at first not severe enough to bring abouthemianopsy, was yet sufficient to cause irritation ofthe visual centre.The fact that hallucinatory percepts are sometimesfollowed by apparent after- images is also cited inproof of retinal action. Gruithuisen gives the following experience of his own:-" I dreamed I was showing a lady the beautiful violet colourproduced by laying fluorspar on glowing coal. The experimentseemed to succeed so well that my eyes were blinded as thoughbya ray ofsunlight. Thereupon I awoke, and found that I had ayellow spot in my eye. This spot gradually became violet-black.¹ Among other writers, Wundt cites these appearances, Grundzüged. physiol. Psychologie, ii . p. 356.2 Quoted by Paterson, " The hom*onymous Hallucinations, " reprinted from the New York MedicalJournal.3 Gruithuisen, Beiträge zur Physiognosie und Heautognosie, p. 256.AND ILLUSIONS. 129On opening my eyes I saw it over against the window. It wasdarker than the other parts of the eye, and moved with the eye'smovements over the objects in the room, like other illusionsseen in the waking state. "" 1A similar case is that of the Hon. Mrs. Drummond.²" I was dreaming of being in a drawing-room furnished witha variety of knick-knacks in glass and china, when my attentionappeared to be arrested by a large green vase of particularlygraceful shape. I felt myself gazing intently at this object, whenI awoke very suddenly and completely.66"I occupied a few seconds in looking about me, collecting theletters which had been brought in, when a slight uneasiness inmy eyes made me close them. I then sawthe vase at which Ihad been staring in my dream appear within the closed eyelidsin red, the complementary colour of green, exactly as it wouldhave done had I looked as long at a real object and then shutmy eyes."These cases are, on the whole, borne out by theaccounts of their own visual images given by Meyer³and Féré. Less convincing is the evidence furnishedby certain hypnotic experiments which yielded1 The account is not quite clear, and seems to indicate that the percipient was awake for some time before he opened his eyes. One isalmost tempted to assume that, on first drowsily half unclosing, hiseyes encountered a strong light stimulus which he supposed to bean after-image, a phenomenon very familiar to him, that in the dreamthe sequence of events was reversed (see above) , and that the supposedafter-image was an actual perception of light which produced a true afterimage. Be that as it may, there is a noteworthy agreement betweenGruithuisen's experience and the following case, for both percipientsreport that they wakened suddenly on experiencing a visual impression,the one through a glare of light, the other, as she expresses it," suddenly, while gazing intently."2 Report, p. 145.3 G. Herm. Meyer, Untersuchungen ueber d. Physiol. d. Nervenfaser ( 1843), pp. 238-241 .4 Ch. Féré, Rev. philosoph. , xx . p . 364.9130 HALLUCINATIONSapparent negative after- images of doubtful genuineness.1But granting that in such cases the hallucinatorycolours really do bring negative after-images in theirtrain, it does not necessarily follow that the retina isinvolved in the physiological process. Even Heringleaves it an open question whether the action takesplace in the retina or in the brain, and MichaelFoster, as quoted in the Report, says, “ We have noright to suppose that the exhaustion takes place inthe retinal structure only, it may occur in the centralcerebral structures during the development of visualimpulses into sensations, and indeed the chief part ofit is probably of cerebral origin. "3Thus we see that these facts, even if we acceptthem, are very far from proving the theory ofa refluent current, and a further series of phenomena often quoted in its support, which we shalldiscuss later, the frequent disappearance of hallucinations on closing the eyes or stopping the ears, thedoubling of the hallucinatory image through a prism,its becoming coloured if seen through coloured glass,the appearance of complementary colours in crystalvisions, the persistence of dream- images in the wakingstate, and so forth,-has really no bearing upon theargument.4. We should be all the more chary of assuming a¹ Binet, Le magnétisme animal ( 1887 ) , p. 188; W. James andCarnochan, Proceed. of the Amer. S.P.R., p. 98; Borderland (Jan.1894), p. 225.2 Compare Bernheim, De la Suggestion, pp. 102-112; also comparebelow, Chapter VI.Foster, Physiology ( 5th edition) , p. 1266.4 See below, Chapter VI. , and also the note on James's experimentsin Chapter V.AND ILLUSIONS. 131descending current in ascending nerve tracts sincesuch a hypothesis is inconsistent with generallyaccepted physiological theories.The possibility of such a process is not indeed to be rejectedapriori. Though it was at first supposed that a nerve fibrecould only convey a current in one direction , Du Bois - Reymondpointed out that it was not easy to conceive of a mechanismwhich would allow of a current passing in one direction only,and he succeeded in demonstrating that stimulation of a nerveat any part of its course produces negative variation at both itsends. Various observers, Schwann, Bidder, Gluge, Vulpian,have endeavoured to obtain experimental evidence of this identity offunction by grafting together motor and sensory fibres;but their results are contradictory and ambiguous. Bert'sexperiments are more satisfactory. He grafted the end of arat's tail into the middle of its back, and after the wound hadhealed he cut the tail off at the root, and showed that it wasstill sensitive—that is to say, that the nerves conveyed stimuliin a reversed direction . Kühne's experiments on the centripetalconductibility of the motor fibres also yielded positive results.¹But even if we attribute such a power of reversedconductibility to the nerves it is difficult to see howtheir activity could produce any appreciable effect,"since the nerve apparatus to which the refluent current would flow is so formed that it could not functionally respond to such a stimulus, supposing it reachedit"(Hermann). Andeven if it could so respond, in orderto explain hallucinations on this theory we should beforced to assume not a mere affection of the externalorgan, but a stimulus applied over a certain definitearea of the retina of the same shape as the imageseen; "and it is difficult to suppose that such an effect1 This short sketch is taken from the account in Hermann's Handbuch d. Physiol. d. Nervensystems, vol. ii . , part i . , pp. 9-14, where other evidence is also to be found.132 HALLUCINATIONScould be produced by a downward impulse from thebrain, in the absence of any special mechanism fordirecting the current to any particular part of theretina.” 1Centripetal Theories.-Having seen sufficient reasonfor rejecting all these centrifugal theories of hallucination, we now pass to consider some of the manyattempts which have been made to explain the phenomena on the assumption of a reverse, that is to say,of a centripetal process. Most of the writers whosupport this view seem` more or less alive to its bearing on Esquirol's distinction between hallucinationand illusion, but so bred into the bone is this timehonoured distinction that they do not at first so muchas attempt to discover whether there are really anyhallucinations in Esquirol's sense at all. They simplytake them as proved, and proceed to set up newcategories. Schlager, for instance, distinguishes notonly between hallucinations and illusions, but createsanother class, abnormal sensations, strictly so called ,which he endeavours to explain, speaking of olfactorycases, through polypoid growths in the mucous membrane of the nose, through concussion of the brain,apoplectic attacks, etc. , that is to say, through inadequate stimuli. Whilst he was able to observe numbersof these phenomena, he could not succeed in meetingwith any genuine hallucinations at all. Andr. Verga³classes these abnormal sensations with illusions, con1 Report, p. 139. See, on the other hand, the quotation previouslygiven from Monakow's description of the anatomical structure of theoptical tract.L. Schlager, " Ueber Illusionen im Bereich des Geruchssinnes,etc.," Wiener Zeitschr. , N. F. I. 19. 20 ( 1858).3 A. Verga, Gazz. Lomb. ( 1857) , 22.AND ILLUSIONS. 133trasting them, as subjective," with " objective "illusions caused by physical processes in healthypersons, and supposes them to arise in the body eitherorganically or pathologically. He distinguishes themas " sensorial," the result of defect or disease of thesense organs; " ganglionic," sensations associated withhysteria and hypochondria, and which, though arisingfrom nerve stimulation, can be perceived without anyreference to the part affected; and " intellectual, ” thefallacies common to undeveloped intelligences, oroccurring in states of anxiety and confusion of mind.Along with these he retains true hallucinations, whichhe describes as being obviously due to a morbid stateof the imaginative faculty, in extreme cerebral excitement, as opposed to illusions, which he attributes toenfeebled power of judgment associated with frequentlowering of the cerebral activity. Lazarus¹ considersthat in hallucination the sensory nerves are stimulated throughout their course to the centre by internalprocesses, but he creates a new class, " visions," whichhe explains on the psychical theory.According to Jolly, the cause of false perception isto be found for the most part in hyperæsthesia ofthe sensory paths concerned, a theory of which heobtained experimental verification by the reaction ofthe acoustic nerve under galvanic stimulation inmental cases associated with auditory hallucinations.Stricker's view is very similar.The Identity of the Centres of Sensory Perceptionand the Reproductive Centres. -It is clear, however,1 Lazarus, Zur Lehre von den Sinnestäuschungen ( 1867).2 Fr. Jolly, " Beiträge zur Theorie der Hallucination, " Arch. fürPsych., iv. ( 1874) .3 Stricker, " Ueber Sinnestäuschungen, " Wien. med. Blätter ( 1878).134 HALLUCINATIONSthat the whole controversy as to whether hallucination arises in the ideational or in the sensory centres,and whether the process travels centripetally orcentrifugally, becomes meaningless when once wehave seen adequate grounds for concluding that thecentres of sensation and imagination are not locallyseparated, but occupy the same part of the brain,and that the difference in character between sensoryperception and ideational reproduction correspondsonly to a different degree of excitement in thesame cells. Such in fact would seem to be thecase.Thus it appears that the subcortical ganglia,frequently identified as the centres of elementarysensation, should rather be regarded as the organsfor reflex movement of the eye-muscles, for, asLonget, Flourens, and Schiff¹ have already pointedout, stimulation of the corpora quadragemina isfollowed by movement of the iris, and, accordingto Munk, when the visual centres, which he locatesin mammals in the occipital lobes, are completelyextirpated only the reaction of the pupil remains,and the animals experimented upon become stoneblind.2 Then again, the pupil reaction remainsintact, its centre in the basal ganglia being uninjured,in unilateral or bilateral hemianopsia resulting fromlesion of the anterior lobes, but it does not appearthat sensations of darkness and light are still experienced in the eliminated part of the visual field,as we should expect them to be if the subcorticalcentres were indeed the seat of primitive light sen1 Schiff, Lehrb. d. Physiologie.2 Contrary results, those of Schrader for instance, perhaps admit ofthe simple explanation that the removal was not quite complete.AND ILLUSIONS. 135sations. The sufferers neither avoid obstacles norflinch from threatening movements and gestures.Various pathological cases have been quoted toprove that within the occipital cortex one part isconnected with sensation and another with ideation.¹They are better explained, however, as James² explains them, by disturbances of conduction betweenthe occipital lobes and other parts of the brain. On1 Munk, " Sehsphäre und Raumvorstellung, " Internationale Beiträgezur wissenschaftl. Medic. Festschr. für Virchow ( 1891 ) , holds that theganglionic cells which bring about the perception of the constantlychanging retinal images cannot at the same time be concerned with thereproduction of memory images, and that, besides elements of perception, there are ideational elements spread over the whole visual area. "We may suppose, " he continues, "that the perceptive andideational elements are situated in different layers in the cortex, but soclose together that the experimenter cannot injure the one withoutinjuring the other. " If the gaze is prolonged or intent, the moretransitory excitation of the perceptive elements as they return to restis communicated to the ideational elements, where it produces certainmore persistent material changes.2 W. James, Principles of Fsychology, ii . p. 73.3 Ibid., i . pp. 41-52. " All the medical authors speak of mentalblindness as though it must consist in the loss of visual images from thememory. It seems to me, however, that this is a psychological misapprehension. A man whose power of visual imagination has decayed(no unusual phenomenon in its lighter grades) is not mentally blind inthe least, for he recognises perfectly all that he sees. On the otherhand, he may be mentally blind with his optical imagination wellpreserved; as in the interesting case published by Willbrand in 1887.In the still more interesting case of mental blindness recently published by Lissauer, though the patient made the most ludicrousmistakes, calling for instance a clothes brush a pair of spectacles . . .he seemed, according to the reporter, to have his mental images fairlywell preserved. It is in fact the momentary loss of our non- opticalimages which makes us mentally blind, just as it is that of our nonauditory images which makes us mentally deaf. I am mentally deaf if,hearing a bell, I can't recall how it looks; and mentally blind if, seeingit, I can't recall its sound or its name. The fact that in most ofsuch cases an impairment of optical imagination (besides mental blind.وو136 HALLUCINATIONSthe other hand, direct evidence for the identity of theideational elements with those of sensory perceptionis furnished by severe cases of hemianopsia, where thepatient loses his visual images simultaneously withhis sensibility to light, and that so completely that hedoes not even know what ails him. "To perceivethat one is blind of the right half of the field of viewone must have an idea of that part of the field'spossible existence. But the defect in these patientshas to be revealed to them by the doctor, they themselves not knowing that there is something wrongwith their eyes. What we have no idea of we cannotmiss; and their failure definitely to miss this greatregion out of their sight seems due to the fact thattheir very idea and memory of it is lost along withthe sensation. A man blind of his eyes merely seesdarkness. A man blind of his visual brain-centrescan no more see darkness out of the parts of hisretina which are connected with the brain - lesion thanhe can see out of the skin of his back. He cannotsee at all in that part of the field, and he cannotthink of the light which he ought to be feeling there,ness) takes place is easily explained by supposing that not only theconnecting tracts are cut off or destroyed , but that the visual area itselfis affected. As a matter of fact, in all cases of mental blindness wherethere has been a post- mortem examination, disturbances in the occipital lobes have been found. For literature see Friedr. Müller, EinBeitrag zur Kenntniss der Seelenblindheit ( Marburg, 1892); comparealso the cases reported by A. Pick in the Arch. für Psych. , xxiii. 3 ,where a certain degree of deafness was associated with mental deafness.Flechsig, who thinks he can prove that the association does not occurthrough direct connection between the separate sensory areas, butindirectly through "association centres, " places psychic blindness,aphasia, etc. , on the same side, and even professes to localise theseveral kinds of disturbed association , all of which he refers to variousparts of his "left posterior association centre. "AND ILLUSIONS. 137for the very notion of that particular there is cut outof his mind. "1Pelman's and Kandinsky's Localisation Theories.---Even when the identity of the sensory and reproductive centres is agreed upon, there is yet room fordifferences of opinion concerning the nature of thehallucinatory process; but before we proceed to consider these it may be as well to note the localisationtheories of some writers who, not content with distributing the perceptive processes associated withhallucination between two classes of brain- centres,have, by drawing up complicated schemes, still furtherconfused the question. Thus Pelman2 holds that thesensory stimulus becomes perception in the subcortical centres, conscious perception [ apperception ]in those of the cortex, and conception and judgmentin the frontal lobes. When the normal activity ofthe frontal lobes is suspended the cortical regionattains to greater independence, and hallucinationarises as conscious perception. It is recognised assomething strange, but for lack of the critical faculty,not as something morbid. Kandinsky's scheme is1 W. James, op. cit. , ii . p. 73; also Binet in the Rev. philos. , xxvi.p. 481; and Dufour, in the Revue Méd. de la Suisse Romande, 1889,No. 8, cited in the Neurologisches Centralblatt, 1890, p. 48. Patientslike those described by James are in the same case as persons bornblind, who have never had any optical imagination at all. Stricker,Wiener Med. Blätter ( 1878) , p. 83, writes as follows: -" A man fiftyyears of age, who had been born blind, told me he had no idea ofdarkness. In reply to my questions he said that he had heard folkspeak of darkness and light, and he often wondered about it, but was unable to conceive it , or form any idea of it whatever. When I askedhim if he could not even imagine something different in front of hiseyes from the back of his head, he replied that it was inconceivable to him. "2 Pelman, Zwangsvorstellungen u. ihre Behandlung.138 HALLUCINATIONSstill more involved. Though his writings¹ are otherwise distinguished by critical acumen in dealing withthe various hypotheses, he describes no less than fivedifferent centres as concerned in the hallucinatoryprocess: the subcortical centre of perception,the sensory centre in the cortex (for apperception), the centre of abstract (unconscious, or semiconscious) ideation, the motor cortical centres ofspeech, and the centre of fully conscious thought,which is also the organ of " preapperception."Grashey2 rightly combats such strained theories ofbrain localisation, and declares that " it is a greatmistake to busy oneself about brain- centres whichhave not been proved to exist, and that theories sofounded are more of the nature of circumlocutionsthan of true explanations." We may thereforeabandon as useless further inquiry into these andsimilar attempts.False Perception a Phenomenon conditioned byDisturbed Association.- Meynert takes a decidedstep forward, for, while he distinguishes betweensensory and ideational areas in the cerebral cortex,he points out that hallucinations are not a result ofheightened cortical excitement, that they do notoccur during periods of clear thought but at timeswhen the higher functions are relaxed." ³Speaking ofthe cortex, he says:-"It cannot ' hallucinate'-that is to say, it cannot reproduce sensations of light, colour,1 Kandinsky, Kritische u. klinische Betrachtungen im Gebiet d.Sinnestäuschungen ( 1885 ); Arch. f. Psych. ( 1881 ).2 Grashey, " Ueber Hallucinationen," Münch. med. Wochenschr.(1892) , Nos. 8 and 9.3 Compare above, pp. 71 et seq.4 Th. Meynert, "Das Zusammenwirken der Gehirntheile, " alecture delivered before the International Congress at Berlin , 1890;AND ILLUSIONS. 139sound, or smell in a sensory manner. A hallucination isalways an inference which arises from the excitation of asubcortical station, and which the cortex interprets in accordance with the ruling thoughts, emotions, and opinions of themoment. If the cortex aimed at giving an object sensoryembodiment it would not succeed through heightening of itsown activity. For this would inhibit the excitation of theexternal corpus geniculatum or of the retina, as well as thesubcortical contribution of a feeling of innervation, which thecortex translates as spatial extension. The excitation of theorgan of association (the cortex) is at its height when purelyoccupied with conclusions and the work of comparison andjudgment, but the perceptive power is then feeble. It is amistake to describe a man who is absorbed in concentratedthought as ' dreamy ' or ' distrait,' though contemporaneousimpressions escape him. Such is not the condition in whichdeceptive phantasms make their appearance. During intensecortical excitement the irritability of the sensory organs andtheir centres in the subcortical regions is suppressed. It iswith the approach of sleep that the exhausted thinking powerdies away, and that the excitability of the cortex is lowered,and it is during sleep that phantasms appear. Why do thesubcortical centres not sleep as well? . . ."Having learned that when the cortical elements are in a stateof tension the activity of the cell colonies in the lower brainis proportionately feeble, and vice versa, we have next to notethat not all of the myriad cortical elements capable of consciousness are awake at the same time. As Fechner expresses it,there is always a surplus in partial sleep, and only those which are awake or ' alert ' at the moment are represented in theconsciousness. Like the assimilative and respiratory functionsof an animal when hibernating, the nutritive activities of thesleeping part of the cortex are lowered. We call the activity ofthe brain cells their state of excitability. Virchow has shownthat the epithelium cells of the kidney swell when stimulated;the muscle cell swells, and similarly in the nerve cell the moleSammlung von popular- wissenschaftlichen Vorträgen, pp. 219 et seq.;"Ueber Fortschritte im Verständnisse krankhafter psychischer Gehirnzustände ( 1878); " Von den Hallucinationen, " Wiener med. Blätter( 1878) , No. 9.140 HALLUCINATIONScular activity of assimilation must be associated with a heightenedfunctional activity, during which, according to Fechner, theexcitement of the cortical elements oversteps the threshold ofconsciousness. In the highest brain activity of all, such as thedelicate play of association, in which out of large groups ofelements a certain number only are alert, and by the excitationof the association filaments arouse other element- groups inremote parts of the brain to function simultaneously or in anunbroken sequence, the assimilative power is enabled to selectthe appropriate elements only through the specialised absorptive energy of the cell units. These delicate operations ofselection and grouping in the nutritive processes of the cortexmust be distinguished from the mere flooding of the corticaltracts with the stream of blood by the action of the heart. Thealert cells supply themselves with nutriment, taking it up by endosmosis from the pervious walls of the capillaries. Thisdelicate capillary action does not extend, however, to the greatblood-sea in the heart, and the larger branches of the bloodvessels must be pumped full by the action of the heart. Fromeach of the three great arteries of the cortex short vesselsproceed to the base of the brain. The cortical and subcortical blood- vessels are collateral, and if the same quantity ofblood enters the great artery, the more there flows to the basethe less goes into the cortex. But the cortex, in the act ofhard thinking, becomes a powerful suction pump and draws offfrom the cell colonies of the corpus geniculatum externum andother basal centres the stimulus supplied by a full flow of blood.If, however, the cortical elements are only half awake orexhausted, as when the individual is drowsy or inattentive, the molecular attraction absorbs little out of the common bloodsupply through the branch running up to the cortex, and thevessels supplying the base of the brain, and which branch offlower down, receive a larger share. ”¹1 This theory that the nerve elements of the cortex recuperatethemselves through molecular attraction has been propounded by Virchow and further developed by Wundt. The best evidence for itis to be found in the results of Meynert, Heubner, and Duret, whoshow that owing to the long and winding course of the arteries theblood-supply in the brain is at low pressure and would be insufficient to reach the cortical cell colonies unless we credit them with the powerAND ILLUSIONS. 141Thus, according to Meynert, hallucination may beregarded as an inference drawn by the organ ofassociation during lowered activity of the hemispheresfrom a message conveyed to it by the excitation ofthe sensory tracts; in a word, it " depends on themutual relations quoad excitability between the frontallobes and the subcortical centres," with which thesensory nerves are associated. While Jolly emphasises the actual hyperæsthesia of the specific sensorynerves, Meynert considers their heightened activitydue to the remission of the inhibitory function ofthe frontal lobes.But Meynert's service consists not so much in thedevelopment of his special theory of hallucination,which we are forced to reject if only because ofthe function which he attributes to the subcorticalganglia, but because, in referring all sensory fallaciesto the lessened excitability of the higher corticalcentres ("the organ of association," as he calls it),he shows that they are subject to a general law.When we translate this law from his terms into ourown we find that we have arrived at the sameconclusion which we saw reason to draw from thefacts considered in Chapters I. and II. , viz. thathallucination is a phenomenon conditioned by disturbedassociation.James's Theory.-W. James adopts this view, thatthe same cortical elements are concerned in senseof molecular attraction. Further support for the theory that hallucinations arise subcortically is furnished by the results of Meynert's experiments in weighing the brains of insane subjects: " Naturexperimente am Gehirn, " Jahrb. f. Psych. , x. , vols. 2 and 3; "Ueber Fortschritteim Verständniss der krankhaften psychischen Gehirnzustände " ( 1878) ,Wiener med. Blätter, 1878, No. 9.142 HALLUCINATIONSperception and ideation, and makes it the startingpoint of his own theory of hallucination, which is tothe following effect: If the centres are one and thesame, then the degree of intensity in the process mustdiffer according as the currents flow in from theperiphery or from neighbouring cortical regions.Münsterberg¹ finds the sufficient cause for thesedifferences of reaction in the adaptation of thecerebral mechanism to the external world, for if wecould not distinguish between reality and fantasy itwould be impossible for our actions to be adjusted tothe environment. The discontinuity between thetwo kinds of processes must mean that when thegreatest ideational intensity has been reached someresistance is encountered which only a new form ofenergy can overcome. If the current from theperiphery furnishes the requisite energy the resulting process assumes for our consciousness a sensory character. We may suppose that this processconsists in a new and more violent explosionof the neural matter occurring at a lower levelthan normally, and we may take it that the resistance to be overcome consists in two factors:first, the intrinsic molecular cohesion of the cells, acohesion which a sudden inrush of energy from theperiphery is able to tear apart, but which is proofa*gainst the feebler currents flowing in through theassociation-paths. The latter might indeed effectthe same result if they could accumulate in the nerveelements. But-and here we have the secondfactor in the resistance this is generally impossiblebecause of the free communication of the cells with1Münsterberg, Die Willenshandlung ( 1888 ) , pp. 129-140.GF TIUNITAND ILLUSIONS. 143each other through the association - paths, in consequence of which the incoming cortical currentflows out again, waking the next ideas. The tensionin the cells thus never rises to the higher explosionpoint. If, however, from any cause the outflow isblocked wholly or in part, the inflowing nerve currentsaccumulate and reach the maximal explosion -point, theprocess of perception takes place and the result is ahallucination.This felicitous explanation unites in itself manyadvantages. The view of hallucination as dependingon restricted or disturbed association is in full agreement with the facts discussed above on pp. 71 et seq.; ¹and with the law, known to hold good generally,2 thatthe intensity of a state of consciousness is in inverseproportion to its power of exciting a new state. Itsresemblance to Hughlings Jackson's view of epilepsy1 Moreau, Du Haschisch, etc. , represents insanity as a special state ofbeing. The dream-state, he says, is its complete physiological ornormal expression. In discussing waking hallucinations, too, he notesthe disturbance of consciousness which accompanies them in a more orless marked degree.2 James, op. cit. , ii. p. 124. " It is the halting- places of ourthought which are occupied with distinct images. Most of the wordswe utter have no time to awaken images at all, they simply awakenthe following words. But when the sentence stops, an image dwellsfor a while before the mental eye. " This accounts for the vividness of the images which haunt our falling asleep ( when dissociationof consciousness is setting in) , and which sometimes appear as complete hallucinations (hypnagogic hallucinations) . Compare Maury'sdescription in Le Sommeil et les Rêves; Taine, De l'intelligence,i. p. 50. New sensations not yet associated (such as a flannel bandageround the body or the gap of a lost tooth) are more intensely feltthan when one has " got used " to them. The dissociation of thedream- state also accounts for our absurd misinterpretations andexaggerations of the sense- impressions which reach us during sleep.See above, pp. 53 et seq.James144 HALLUCINATIONSpermits us in a simple manner to explain, on similarprinciples, these phenomena, which Hagen had alreadyattempted, but without conspicuous success, to bringinto line.Nevertheless, it seems to me simpler, so long atleast as the action of afferent currents from theperiphery is not absolutely excluded, and thereforeso long as such action may be inferred, to attributethe sensory character of false perception to thiscause. In so doing we shall, without losing theadvantages of James's¹ theory, observe more closelythe law of parsimony by reducing fallacious perceptions to one type, Esquirol's illusions. As we pursueour inquiry we shall come to see that all false perception is an anomalous reaction of the brain to sensorystimuli, and the hallucinatory process only a specialform of that process which accompanies all objectiveperception. Thus we shall restore two long separatedprovinces to the dominion of the same fundamentallaw.Schematic Presentation of the Physiological Processin False Perception. -When a stimulus from theperiphery is conducted to the cortex it excites in theplace first affected, A, a process, a, which tends toirradiate thence on all sides. The irradiation naturally takes place in the direction of least resistance,and what this open path shall be is decided by threeprincipal considerations. First of all it will be thepath to the element, or rather to the closely connected element- group [ M + N +O + ... ] which hasbeen most frequently and actively associated with A,1 The instances given by Prof. James, op. cit. , p. 99, would be easyto explain on this theory also.AND ILLUSIONS. 145"either simultaneously or in unbroken sequence. "¹Thus a directly stimulated element and an indirectlystimulated element- group are aroused to activity atthe same time, and the sum of the processes a +[m + n + o + . ] arising from the disintegration ofthe neural matter represents a cerebral state whichis accompanied by a psychical fact-a perception...?In the next place, however, it is to be noted thatthe stimuli penetrate into the cortex, not singly, butseveral at once. A number of directly stimulatedelements, A, B, C, D, . . . are aroused into activity;a number of processes, a, b, c, d, . . . take place invarying degrees of intensity. Each of these processesirradiates in the direction of least resistance to certain groups [M+ N+ O+ . . . ], [ R + S + T+ . . . ],[ O+ P + Q + R ... ]. Some ofthe primary processes,ཝཱ¹ Münsterberg, Beiträge zur experimentellen Psychologie, i. p. 129." Now, if two sensations are in consciousness simultaneously, thephysiological inference is that two locally- separated ganglion- complexesin the brain are in a state of excitation at the same time, and it isfully in agreement with the rest of our neuro- physiological and anatomical science to conclude that in such simultaneous excitationin two parts the process discharges into the conducting path which unites them. This path, whose two end stations are affected, serves ina certain measure to equalise the two excitations, and in whatever waywe choose to represent the molecular process of the neural activity,it is evident from any standpoint that two simultaneously excitedregions bring their connecting paths into a state of excitement with them. Thus not only does there remain behind a functional disposition of the ganglia themselves to respond more easily to a repetition ofthe same stimulus, but a functional disposition of the association - pathto carry more easily than all the other outgoing paths the excitation of one end station to another which was formerly excited withit-or, to put it shortly, when one of these two ganglion- complexesis active the process will be passed on by this connecting path (whichbrain physiology supposes to consist in certain nerve filaments,therefore called association- filaments) to the other cortical region. "For a fuller account see W. James, op. cit. , ii . pp. 580 et seq.ΙΟ146 HALLUCINATIONSb and c, are but feeble and set free only a slight discharge in the groups which they arouse. Someelements are members, not of one, but of severalelement-groups (N, O, R), and in them the explosion is most violent; but through these commonmembers, as well as through direct connecting paths,the level of tension in the various groups is partiallyequalised. In short, the resulting brain- state isextremely complex, and constitutes (together withthe perception which accompanies it) the reaction ofthe brain to the sum of the sensory stimuli—in afully waking state to the sum of all the stimuliacting on the periphery and thence conducted to thecortex. That in this simultaneous action of severalstimuli the path of least resistance for the irradiationfrom A or B may, and frequently does change, caneasily be understood. For instance, the path mightlead, as described above, to [ M+ N+ O ... ] , but theresistance in the path from A to [ R + S + N+ T..... ]might be very little higher, and this group being alsoclosely connected with B, which is stimulated at thesame time as A, it is possible under certain conditionsthat group [M+ N+ O . . . ] might be entirely disposed of, and the discharge of the processes a and bboth reach only the elements [ R + S + N+ T ... ].Thirdly, the resistance which the process a meetswith in its efforts to discharge in the various association- paths dependson the cerebro- static condition whichobtains at the moment of its occurrence. Some oftheelements are exhausted, in others the former excitationsstill reverberate more or less, and in yet others throughsummation of stimuli, still unconscious, a high degreeof tension has been reached, which only awaits a slightimpulse to overstep the threshold of consciousness,AND ILLUSIONS. 147Normally, however, such an impulse is not forthcoming. The sensational level is only reached whenfrom some physiological or pathological cause dissociation-the characteristic state underlying allsensory delusions-is present. If, for instance,through exhaustion of the element-groups usuallyassociated with A, or through other obstructions,the paths normally open to the irradiationof the process a are closed, and if on the otherhand a certain close- knit group of elements is in astate of high tension, then when A is stimulated , a,being able to discharge only in the direction of theleast resistance, will be forced to discharge towards thisgroup which has perhaps never before been affectedby it. Now supposing that the tension in this groupis so high that the slightest impulse brings about theexplosion, and that the path to it is wide open, thenthe current flowing towards the first affected element,A, cannot accumulate there. That is to say, theprocess a will only take place feebly, and theresulting brain-state in its totality will be almost¹1 With regard to this " almost " I would call the reader's attentionto an observation made by several authors chiefly concerning dreamphenomena. The dream- figures frequently show, in spite of a resemblance to the person dreamt of complete in every other detail, a moreor less striking difference in particular features —for instance, in a familiarface an enormous nose will appear. It is rarely, however, that thecontrast between the liberated element-groups and the sensation whichplays the part of the liberating stimulus is so great as in Kraepelin'sexperience, " Ueber Erinnerungstäuschung, ” Arch. für Psych. , xviii. ,vol. i. p. 235. He dreamed in November 1884 of one of his mostintimate friends, who was in reality a short man with a black beard,but appeared in the dream tall and slight, with a small moustache.The difference between the dream image and the memory image couldhardly have been more complete, yet it did not affect the dream con- sciousness at all.148 HALLUCINATIONSexactly the same as if the element-group in questionwere alone active, as if it had been started not byprocess a but by an irradiation, let us say, of processn, which usually starts the activity in this particularelement-group. The psychical concomitant of thisprocess is therefore a sensory perception, which yetlacks the special sensory stimulus normally associatedwith it,-in other words, it is a perception withoutobjective basis, a hallucination.But dissociation, or rather the exhaustion of theneural elements by which it is conditioned , acts alsoin another way. If the excitability of the neuralelements is lowered, a great number of the stimuliflowing in to the cortex are not powerful enough tostart the corresponding processes b, c, d, and so forth.The process a, which alone emerges, no doubt succeedsin discharging towards an element- group and arousingit, but the resulting cerebral state taken as a whole isnot the same as the state that would have beenproduced if other processes which have now droppedout (b, c, d, etc.) had contributed to the result. Some ofits constituent parts, it is true, are present, but manyofthe usual " interference waves " are wanting. Thepsychical concomitant of this brain- state is a perception such as a, or the sensory process started by a,can evoke. But it misrepresents the sensation forwhich it stands because it is incomplete, and lacksthe correction and adjustment which the dormantelements in consciousness could alone have supplied.It is, in a word, an illusion.Since the view here expressed, in so much as itsupposes all false perception to originate in the action.of sensory stimuli, reduces hallucination and illusion.to one category, it is clear that the processesAND ILLUSIONS. 149just described by these names do not correspondwith Esquirol's definition.¹ I have distinguished as"illusions " the phenomena which result from the suppression of certain processes, and as " hallucinations "those which are caused by an act of forced association;and I have indicated that both processes are conditioned in the first place by the dissociative state.Where the contrary is not expressly stated I shallhenceforward use these terms in the sense justascribed to them.It is to be observed, however, that the two processesseldom or never take place separately. No hard andfast line can be drawn between them, though, generally, either the plus or minus quality predominates,and the phenomena can be classed as " hallucinations"or "illusions " accordingly.Some Objections refuted. -This attempt of mine.to reduce all false perception to a single physiologicaltype-Esquirol's illusions-may seem to have beendisposed of beforehand by James in his criticism ofBinet's² point-de-repère theory, but I shall endeavourto show that the facts which led James to assumecentral initiation in a few cases at least are not reallyincompatible with the view of false perception asillusion in the old sense. Be it noted, however, that' I reiterate this here, although it is self- evident enough, because inthe notices and criticisms of the German edition of this work my standpoint has been so often misunderstood . The objection has been raised,for . instance, that the phenomena commonly called “'apperceptionillusions " (see p. 118) cannot be regarded as Ausfall- Ergebniss. "Certainly not, and that is just why I have classed them not as illusionsbut as hallucinations , in my sense of the term.662 Binet in the Rev. Philos. , xviii . ( 1884); Binet and Féré, Magnetisme Animal.3 Compare below, Chapter VII.150 HALLUCINATIONSif his negative results do not militate against Binet'stheory, the experiments of the latter do as little toestablish it. Both views seem to be founded on thesame misconception of the nature of the facts. Thathallucinations may be doubled by a prism, enlargedby a magnifying-glass, and reflected by a mirror, nomore proves their peripheral origin than their failure.to respond to such tests disproves it.Of course, by refusing to accept central initiationwe must not be understood to deny the possibility ofsensory deception originating in a pathological condition of some part of the central organ, but weshould then regard the resulting phenomenon, toavail ourselves once more of Esquirol's definition, asan illusory interpretation of the morbid stimulus.The majority of hallucinations are highly complexphenomena, and require for their production theco-operation of many widely separated elementgroups. "They do not correspond to the appearance of a simple memory such as we suppose to bedeposited in these centres. "1 For a pathologicalstimulus to appear in consciousness as a full- fledgedhallucination it must first irradiate from the morbidgroups by the association- paths (as indicated in thescheme given above) , and arouse the activity of thevarious elements required for its manifestation. Sucha conception as Grashey's, of an independent activityof the sensory cells, without communication throughthe association-paths—a kind of " self-explosion " or1 Mendel, " Der gegenwärtige Stand der Lehre von der Halluc. , "Berliner Klin. Wochenschr. ( 1890) , p. 614. We should otherwise beobliged to revert to the crude view that each separate cell contains acertain sense perception, however complicated that sense perception may be.AND ILLUSIONS. 151""" molecular concussion (Ferrier) and consequentrenascence of the sensation-is quite chimerical. Itmay moreover be met by Neumann's contention, quotedon page III, viz.: that among the incalculable numberof possible element- combinations the contingency ofany familiar combination (that corresponding to anobject, for instance ) turning up would be too remoteto merit consideration.•CHAPTER V.FACTORS OF FALLACIOUS PERCEPTION.The dissociated State-Definition-Pathological and Physiological Causes - Varieties of Dissociation --Action ofDissociation - The Stimuli -Post-mortem ReportsExcitation ofthe various Senses-Cramer's Theory.OF the separate factors which are concerned in theproduction of fallacious perception, the state whichwe have found to be essential for its occurrence,and which we have called dissociation, is the mostimportant, and has the first claim on our attention.By dissociation is here understood that state inwhich the nerve stimulus no longer flows through thechannels determined by habit, and by the co- operation of simultaneous stimuli, because inhibitions, orobstructions, whether from pathological or physiological causes, have been set up in the normalassociation-paths, or obstructions which normallyexist in other connecting tracts have been weakenedor altogether abolished.Pathological Causes of Dissociation. -We can onlyglance here briefly at the pathological causes whichmay give rise to dissociation, and refer the reader toChapter II., where the various morbid states whichbring hallucinations in their train have already beendescribed. Further inquiry into the causes whichHALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS. 153give rise to these states does not come within thescope ofthe present work.¹3Physiological Causes of Dissociation. -One of thechief physiological causes of dissociation is the obstruction caused by the exhaustion of the elementsthemselves, for instance, in normal sleep; whether weexplain this exhaustion with Pflüger² as directly dueto the great expenditure of energy in the waking state,with its resulting destruction of nerve tissue, or withPreyer as due to the readily oxidisable products offatigue ( lactic acid) reducing the amount of therespiratory oxygen of the blood available for theganglionic cells, or with Rosenbaum as a result ofthe nervous substance becoming watery in consequence of a swelling up of the nerve cells. Pathological exhaustion acts in the same way, eg.in anæmia, or other disturbances of nutrition, morbidcontraction of the arteries, atheromatous processes,poisons, etc.In psychical concentration a reverse process bringsabout the same result. The tension in certain selectedelement-groups is heightened and their irritabilityincreased. But this takes place at the expense ofthe¹ The prevalent practice of referring hallucinations to the diseaseitself instead of to the mental disturbance induced by it has filled pathological manuals with examples drawn from affections of a more or lessopposite character, which have come to be regarded as themselvescauses of fallacious perception , for instance, hyperæmia and anæmia ofthe brain and its membranes, qualitative changes of the blood, as incases of poisoning, diseases of the heart, abdomen and lungs, longexposure to heat and cold, the breathing of rarified air or noxious gases,extreme pain, etc.2 Pflüger, Pflüg. Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. , x . , pp. 658 et seq. ( 1875) .3 Preyer, Ueber die Ursache des Schlafes (Stuttg. 1877 ); compare hisArt. " Schlaf" in Eulenburg's Real- Encyklopädie, 2nd ed . , Bnd. xvii .4 E. Rosenbaum, Warum müssen wir schlafen ( Diss. Berl. 1892).154 HALLUCINATIONSnon-selected elements whose irritability maybe therebyreduced to a minimum, causing a state of dissociationor splitting off to ensue— a state which we mayregard with Wundt¹ as arising out of neurodynamicand vasomotor processes, " according to the generalprinciple which holds good for any system of elementswhere a struggle for equilibrium is going on, thatwhenever an expenditure of energy occurs at onepoint there will be an increased flow to that pointfrom all the neighbouring parts having a highertension." That is to say, the consumption of energycaused by fixed attention compels an inflow tocounterbalance the waste, and this is expressed ina lowered irritability of the elements yielding thesupply.A fact has been observed which aptly illustratesand supports this view of one- sided fixed attention asdissociation-not indeed as a general breaking up,but as a " splintering " or splitting off,-the fact,namely, that two separate complexes may be subjectat the same time to different illusions, and eachbe unaware of what is impressing or occupyingthe other. It is somewhat remarkable that thefollowing interesting case given by Gurney hasreceived no further notice:—2P- 1 (in the hypnotic trance) was told several times," It has left off snowing," and then when woke and set to theplanchette he was made to read aloud. The writing whichappeared was, " It has lfeft sn- and while this was pro1 Wundt, Hypnotismus und Suggestion, p. 58." Gurney, " Peculiarities of Certain Post- hypnotic States, ” Proceed, ofthe S.P.R. , vol. iv. , 1886-87 , pp. 319 et seq.3 An instrument adapted to automatic writing, a small board supported on three feet, one of which is a pencil.AND ILLUSIONS. 155ceeding the reading was bad and stumbling. When thewriting stopped the reading became appreciably more correctand fluent. Re-hypnotisation afforded a glimpse of the condition in which the secondary intelligence had found itself.Asked what he had been doing, the " subject " replied, “ Tryingto write 'It has left off snowing."" Asked if he had been reading,he said, " Reading! No, I haven't been reading," and added,"something seemed to disturb me." " Howwas that?" " Something seemed to keep moving about in front of me, so I gotback into bed again." " Didn't Mr. Gurney hold a book andmake you read aloud? ” “ No, somebody kept moving about.I didn't like the looks of them. Kept wandering to and fro.Horrible, awful! I thought to myself, ' I'll get into bed.' Itlooked so savage-quite unnerved me," etc., etc.The experiment was repeated. The " subject " was told, " Ithas begun snowing again." The writing was now an almostillegible scrawl of It begun snowing. Meanwhile he wasreading about Humpty- Dumpty, slowly and with omission ofwords, but with clear comprehension and decided amusem*nt.On being re-hypnotised, he was again completely unaware ofthe reading, and gave the same description of the way that hewas disturbed in writing.....It was curious to observe how the act of writing sometimesseemed to affect P-ll's power of articulation; the difficultyseemed to be of a distinctly physical sort, and he himself severaltimes remarked that it seemed to " draw" the right side of hismouth, without affecting his comprehension of what he read. Itseems just possible that this may be connected with the proximityof the cerebral centres of speech and of movement of the rightarm (see Le Magnétisme Animal, by MM. Binet and Féré,p. 250). At the same time the difficulty undoubtedly seemed tobe less when the acts accomplished were of a semi- mechanicalkind; as when he had to write the numbers from 100 backwards, and simultaneously count the numbers from I forwards,and vice versa.This case shows clearly how the illusion is broughtabout. The sensory impression mounts from the eyeto the cortex and there arouses the elements selectedby attention. The perception of reading which156 HALLUCINATIONSengaged the entire interest of P―ll took place inthe normal consciousness. Faint echoes of the processpenetrated to the complexes concerned in the subconscious writing, and there set agoing a processcharacterised by the want of the group then beingused in the other complex to convey the consciousness of the visual impression. In consequence ofthe uneasy feeling caused by the simultaneous obstruction of both activities the sub-conscious sensorydelusion assumed a distressing character, as describedby the subject. The process was reversed in themovements of the right hand which gave riseto corresponding processes in the subliminal complex, faint echoes of which succeeded in penetrating through almost impassable channels ofassociation and produced in their turn in thecomplex used in the normal consciousness effectsproving that in this complex the groups necessaryfor the correct interpretation of the stimulus werealtogether absent. The process was ascribed to theactivity of the elements working in this complex, andthus referred to the corner of the mouth and sensiblyperceived as twitching and quivering of the rightcorner of the mouth.¹There is still another way in which a state of dissociation may be brought about. It may, as we havealready seen, be due to the exclusion of externalsensory stimuli, and this absence of external excitation acts in two ways-first directly, and secondly, byturning the attention inwards, on what at other times1 On another occasion only the sub- conscious sensory delusion couldbe demonstrated. P -11 , on being re-hypnotised after writing, didnot remember to have been reading, though he did recall that his mouthhad moved up and down as in eating.AND ILLUSIONS. 157are but dimly perceived and little noted sensations.having their source in the organism itself, and thusloosening and breaking up the complex.Besides the individual experience which we haveall had of this fact, there are special experimentswhich tend to prove that the exclusion of externalstimuli favours the occurrence of fallacious perception.¹Baillarger maintains that in the insane deaf auditoryhallucinations are nearly always present, and Gutsch³observed them almost exclusively in mental disturbance due to solitary confinement. Hypnagogichallucinations, dreams, and the tendency to seeghosts and visions in the dark also point to the samecause. In the insane it is frequently found thatthere is a respite from visions and voices during theday followed by violent attacks at night. Conversely,in many patients the perceptive power of the hallu1 Biëlski, op. cit. , seeks to explain this by supposing that othercentres normally inhibit the reproductive activity of the ideationalcentres, and that as these inhibiting centres act continuously like thevagus nerve centres which inhibit the heart, they must be in a toniccondition. As a matter of fact, Langendorff seems to have succeededin proving that this tonic condition is maintained principally throughexternal stimuli, especially those of sight and hearing: a frog whichhad been made blind and deaf croaked straight on like the brainlessfrog in Goltz's experiment. It would thus appear that the inhibitingcentres are started into activity through the excitation of the sensorycentres. Jolly thinks that hyperesthesia of the visual organ wouldexplain hallucinations occurring in the dark. When our eyes are usedto the dark they are able to perceive smaller differences of illuminationthan in a strong light, and this hyperesthesia may, he thinks, sufficeto create visions out of the slight excitation of the retina-the " selflight " ofthe retina, as it is called.2 Baillarger, Des hallucinations.3 Gutsch, " Ueber Seelenstörungen in Einzelhaft, " Allg. Ztschrft. f.Psych., xix.; compare Köppe, loc. cit. , p. 49; F. Siemens, Berl. Klin.Wochenschr., xx. 9 ( 1883) .158 HALLUCINATIONScinated sense is found to be lowered, ¹ which practicallyamounts to the same thing.Various Kinds of Dissociation.-It has been alreadyindicated (compare pp. 73, 74) that dissociation variesin kind or degree according to the nature ofthe cerebralchange; thus it may be large or small element-groupsthat are split off, or, on the other hand, are in a stateof heightened irritability; or again, the whole cerebralmechanism may be involved in the disturbance.The effect of this difference will naturally showitself in the sensory delusions. From the schemegiven in the preceding chapter this can easily beapplied in individual cases. A more detailed exposition, however, would lead us too far, and I thereforeturn at once to the effect of dissociation on our perception of the stimuli which reach us while it is present.The Action ofthe Dissociative State. The action ofdissociation on the impressions received from the socalled external world has already been described; itcauses excitations which normally produce " correct "or objective sensory perceptions to be misinterpreted.But it also plays a very important part through itsaction on the impressions which arise within thephysical organism itself. These form so large andso constant a factor in our experience, and are soclosely knit up together, that the elements concernedin them discharge into each other with great ease,and the resulting state of consciousness is dim andundefined. But should a particular element from anycause be released from this compact system, itsirradiation becomes impeded, in the same way thatthe irradiation of quite new and unfamiliar stimuli1 Sinogowitz, Die Geistesstörung ( 1843 ) , p. 297 .AND ILLUSIONS. 159is impeded by the absence of well-worn connectingpaths. Either it is completely blocked, or else it isrendered slow and difficult; and our consciousness ofthe resulting physiological or pathological irritationbecomes proportionately intense -hence singing inthe ears, ocular spectra, and other " elementary sensations. " If, on the other hand, a practicable pathcan be found the irradiation will stream through it tonew groups, and thus become the cause of sensorydelusions.In mental alienation , for instance, the co-operationof a stimulus with the predisposing state is expressedin various ways. Thus in many such cases onlysubjective phenomena are remarked at first, and notuntil a later stage do apparitions or voices make theirappearance.2 In the same way isolated hallucinationssometimes begin with subjective phenomena and then,as Müller has shown, are presently replaced by thesight of a phantasma. But the need for a specificpsychical state to prepare the way if a given stimulusis to result in hallucination is best shown when the1 No doubt hypochondriacal preoccupation with bodily processes oftenadmits of this simple explanation.2 Compare Köppe, " Gehorsstörungen und Psychosen, ” Allg. Zeitschr.f. Psych. , xiv.3 J. Müller, Phantast. Gesichtsersch. , §§ 34-41 . By the word phantasma he understands subjective phenomena of sight and hearinge.g. , visions of buildings, plants, etc. —which arise suddenly, and unconnected with specks of light , in the completely dark visual field, incontradistinction to appearances which are gradually elaborated tocomplicated forms, the original speck of light in the eye remaining allthe while to serve as a point de repère for the hallucinatory images.4 Bottex, Sur les hallucinations; Ruf, Delirien, p. 7; Morel, Traitédes maladies mentales, p. 318; Baillarger, Des hallucinations; MaxSimon, Lyon médical, xxxi . p. 439; especially in the abuse of quinine,ringing in the ears and undue sensitiveness to light occur first, andonly later auditory delusions, less often visual images.160 HALLUCINATIONSstimulus has been acting for some time, and onlysubjective sensations have been present, until after anemotional crisis, or some such disturbance, hallucinations supervene. Graefe¹ gives a case in pointwhere vivid (subjective) fiery spheres seen by a patientwith phthisis bulbi were transformed into full- fledgedvisual hallucinations after emotional disturbance.Similarly in the case of a lad, mentally sound, butwith a perforation of the left ear, the result of a blow,typhus led to the development of hallucinations.2The sensory deceptions which occur after eye-operations (especially after the operation for cataract) belongto the same class. During the treatment in the darkroom hallucinations are often observed in the patient.3It is true they are generally described as delusions ofdelirium, although they appear without any changeof pulse or temperature taking place. A specialmental state may be presumed in these cases also, forwe have to take into account not only the stimulationofthe external organ, but the inanition resulting froma strict regimen ( a certain proportion of the casesreported relate to inebriates), and also the fact thatthe patient's thoughts would naturally be fixed on¹ Graefe, loc. cit.2 Neurol. Centralblatt, 1882; compare Centralblatt f. Nervenheilkunde, etc. , N. F. v. p. 57, f.3 Tavignot, Gaz. d. Hốp. ( 1846); Heyfelder, “ Ueber das Deliriumnervosum nach Operationen und Verwundungen, " Arch. f. phys.Heilk. , x. 3 ( 1851 ); Griesinger, op. cit. , p . 89, Anm.; Siche!, " Surune espèce du délire sénil, " Union med. ( 1863) , No. 1; Zehender,Klin. Monatsblatt. f. Augenheilk. ( 1863 ) , p. 123; Lanne, Gaz. d. Hôp.( 1863 ) , No. 57; Magne, Bullet. d. thér. , lxiv. ( 1863 ); Graefe andSaemisch, Handbuch d. des. Augenheilk. , Part iii . , p. 309; Schmidt- Rimpler, Arch. f. Psych. ( 1879) , ix. p. 233; Jolly, " Ueber Gesichsersch. in Folge von Verbrenn. d. Augen, ” Allg. Zeitschr. f. Psych. , xl.;Stanisl. Bielski, Ueber Halluc. im Gebiete d. Gesichtsinnes ( 1884).AND ILLUSIONS. 161the results expected from the grave operation he hadjust undergone. Indeed, mental disturbance has notinfrequently been observed after eye- operations.¹It is to be remarked further that Köppe² found incases of ear-disease among the insane, and whereboth conditions were therefore present, that auditoryillusions and hallucinations invariably accompaniedthe subjective sounds, but failed to appear when oneof the conditions was wanting. Thus the hallucinations may gradually disappear under purely localtreatment of the local ailment, or they may ceasewhen the patient's mental health improves, thoughthe subjective images and sounds still persist.31 Bartisch noted nervous disturbance, and Dupuytren, Clin. chir. ,i. 55 ( 1832) , has also described such results; Locher-Zwingli inZürich operated on a woman, who became insane ( 1834); G. Sousoperated on a man, who became insane and sank from inanition ( 1864);compare Frankl- Hochwart, Jahrb. f. Psych. , ix. 1 , 2, ( 1889); AntonElschnig, Wiener med. Blätter, xi . 31 ( 1888 ); E. Mendel, " DasDelir. Hallucin. , " Berl. Klin. Wochenschr. ( 1894) , No. 29. On theother hand, R. Fabian, Ein Fall von Psychose nach Augenverletzung(Dissert. 1893), attributes his case of epileptoid paroxysms of excitement to the strain and irritation of the iris, which because of itsattachment to the cornea was hampered in its function whenevercalled upon to do extra work.2 Köppe, loc. cit.3 Graefe, Berl. Klin. Zeitschr. ( 1867 ); Flemming in his review ofIlagen's " Sinnestäuschungen, " Schmidi's Jahrbücher, xvi. p. 364;Hagen, " Zur Theorie, " etc. , Allg. Zeitschr. f. Psych. , xxv. p. 58;Fischer, "Ueber den Einfl. des galvan . Stroms auf Gehörshall. , " Arch.f. Psych. , ix. , observed in an insane patient with auditory hallucinations,not only the auditory hallucinations but also the subjective noisesdisappear under the influence of the galvanic current; compare Fr.Fischer, " Ueber einige Veränderungen, welche Gehörshall. unter demEinf. des galv. Stroms erleiden, " Arch. f. Psych. , xviii .; Erlenmeyer,Bericht über die Heilanstalt f. Nervenkranke ( 1877 ); Hedinger,Krankenbericht, etc. , Stuttgart , 1880, obtained favourable results fromthe constant current in many subjective noises, and also in hallucinations, to which, however, he ascribes a central origin.II162 HALLUCINATIONSBusch¹ observed that during galvanic treatment anauditory hallucination which was normally audibleonly on the left was strengthened on that side bythe anode, and was rendered audible to the right earas well, while , the cathode abolished the auditorydisturbance on the right and at least weakened it onthe left. Chvosteck's2 attempts to produce auditoryhallucinations through the electric current yieldednot merely elementary noises, but even complicatedphenomena; these last, however, occurred only whenthe patient had experienced spontaneous hallucinations quite recently-i.e. , only when the indispensablecondition favourable to the appearance of fallaciousperception still obtained.The Stimuli.-This discussion has now led us tothe second factor which co-operates in the productionof fallacious perception, namely, the stimulus whichstarts it, and which may consist firstly in any of thoseobjective sensory impressions which we have alreadyconsidered in treating of the dream state. Thedependence of hallucinations on external stimuli iswell illustrated in the following often- quoted communication from a patient:-" Every tree which I approach, even in windless weather,seems to whisper and utter words and sentences. . . . Thecarts and carriages rattle and sound in a mysterious way andcreak out anecdotes. . . . The swine grunt names and stories,and exclaim in surprise. The voices of the dogs, co*cks, andhens seem to scold and reproach me, and even the geese cacklequotations. " 31 Busch, " Ein Fall von acuter primärer Verrücktheit, " Arch. f.Psych. , xi.2 Chvosteck, " Beiträge zur Theorie d. Hallucinationen, " Jahrb. f.Psych., xi. 3.3 Allg. Ztschrft. f. Psych. , xxxv. p. 696.AND ILLUSIONS. 163To this class belong also hallucinations occurringin clouding of the cornea or lens. Perhaps the casequoted by Griesinger of the man who always saw ablack goat at his side may be taken as an example.In the same way eyelashes, tears, and such-like,may furnish the material for hallucinations. This isspecially likely to occur, as has been often insisted,if there is any want of distinctness in the originalimpression. Myopia and other defects of visionwhich cause the sense-impression to be indistinctalso predispose to fallacious perception. Zanderreports that among 100 mental cases he had 8colour-blind patients, who all suffered from visualdelusions; and Leubuscher's¹ account of the patientwho mistook himself for his mistress seems to pointto the same explanation, for if he saw himself in amirror he knew the face to be his own, but if he onlysaw his reflection dimly in the window- pane he tookit for the image of his lady.The stimulus need not, however, be an objectivesensory impression; it may consist in pathologicalor physiological irritation of the sensory centres.In the normal state both processes, as we see, arerecognised as so- called subjective sensations; but ifdissociation obtains, they may become causes of falseperception.The physiological sensory irritation may dependon changes such as metabolic processes in the centresthemselves, and in the nerve tracts leading to them.The pathological irritation may depend on morbidprocesses, such as meningitis, which radiate fromneighbouring parts of the brain; at least the cases1 Op. cit.164 HALLUCINATIONSof sensory delusion in which external impressionsfail to be perceived, either owing to peripheraldisturbance or because the ascending current isbroken off at some intermediate point, are mosteasily explained by supposing an irradiation proceeding from the morbid part. Or, secondly, thepathological irritation may act from some givenpoint in the course of the sensory path concerned;for instance, in a partly-atrophied nerve the seat ofthe excitation would be the point of transition fromthe morbid to the sound parts. Such cases mightplausibly be explained by adopting H. E. Richter's viewof hallucination as an instance of anomalous functioning of the sensorial nervous system analogous toanæsthesia dolorosa, in which, though the peripheralstimulus cannot reach the central organ owing tothe irritation of the sensory nerve at some intermediate point, the brain nevertheless receives impressions from the seat of the irritation. We arereminded in this connection of the unilateral hallucinations occurring in the prodromal stage of hysteria,of fallacious perceptions in enfeebled visual power(neuritis opt. ), and of the fact observed by Politzer¹that many patients cannot hear objective soundswhich resemble the illusory sounds from which theyare suffering.Post-mortem Reports.- It should be noted that thebrain autopsies on persons subject to hallucinations1 Politzer, “ Über subjective Gehörs-Empfindung, " Wiener med.Wochenschrift ( 1865 ) , No. 94. " Thus many patients who arehaunted by a subjective sound similar to the ticking of a watch reportthat they cannot tell by listening whether they really hear the tickingof a watch held to their ear. " Hoppe, however, refers this to thedifficulty commonly experienced in distinguishing between two allied sounds.AND ILLUSIONS. 165show very diverse results. Cases are known in whichhallucinations occurred notwithstanding complete lossof the organ and atrophy of the optic nerves.¹ ThusClouston found in visual hallucinations degeneration ofthe optic nerve extending to the corpora quadrigemina,and Schüle cites a case in which there was softeningof the entire thalamus as far as the root of the coronaradiata. Changes in the basal ganglia are veryfrequently found. Nevertheless even Luys,³ whowould locate the process of hallucination in theoptic thalami, admits that the disturbance frequentlyextends to the cortex. W. J. Mickle reports as theresult of a great number of necropsies that in cases ofhallucination " thalamic disease plays a less important part than cortical. " Still he found no connectionbetween the morbid parts and Ferrier's centres. Onthe other hand, he found the latter affected without1 J. Müller, Phant. Erscheinungen, 31-34; Michéa reports casesof Marc. Donatus; Calmeil describes a case of his own; Foville;Johnson, Med. chir. , 220 ( 1836); Romberg, Nervenkrankheiten, 3rd ed., p.133

Bergmann,GöttingerNaturforscher- Vers. ( 1854),Psych. Corresp. , Bl. i . No. 8, Beil.; Bericht aus der Wiener IrrenAnst. ( 1858); Forel, Der Hypnotismus (2nd ed. ) , p. 55; Stenger,"Die cerebralen Sehstörungen der Paralytiker, " Arch. f. Psych. , xiv.(in total amaurosis and after paralytic attacks); Meschede, Allg.Ztschrft. f. Psych. , xxxiv. (auditory hallucinations with localiseddegeneration of the acustici).2 For instance, Flechsig (Neurol. Centrlbl. , ix. 4) found in a caseof marked auditory hallucinations the externally normal inferior corp.quad. impregnated in its outermost stratum, and partially in its innerone, with calcareous concretions.3 Ga ~. d . Hộp. ( i88o , Dec. ) , p. 46.66 Journ. of Ment. Science ( 1881 , Oct. ) , p. 382; Reinhard, " Hirnlocalisation, " Arch. f. Psych. , xvii. and xviii . , found hallucinations three times in sixteen cases of lesions of the occipital lobes, and certainly inone case photopsia.166 HALLUCINATIONSany indication of hallucination, ¹ just as hallucinationshave been observed where no corresponding changesin these parts could be discovered.2 Sander hasnoted that while in ordinary paralytic cases thechanges are generally spread for the most part overthe frontal lobes, when the paralysis is accompaniedby hallucinations numerous and marked alterations.are found in the otherwise little affected parts behindthe posterior central convolution. He also observeddisappearance of the white matter ofthe occipital lobesand dilatation, principally of the posterior horn of thelateral ventricle. He justly remarks, however, thatthe changes found in the necropsy ought not tobe used directly to explain hallucinations appearingoften long before death. The hallucinations belongnot to the time of the destruction of the neuralelements, but to the period of irritation , whether thisarises from neighbouring morbid cells or from theprocesses preceding destruction of the cortical cellsthemselves that is to say, they belong to the earlierperiod of delicate molecular changes, rather than to thelater stage of grosser and more obvious disturbance.There is no lack of cases to show this. According to Fr. Paterson, hemioptic hallucinations wereobserved by Séguin immediately before the appearance of hemiopia. Vetter reports a similar case.51 Journ. ofMent. Science, p. 381; ibid. ( 1882, Jan. ) , p. 29.2 Sander, loc. cit. , pp. 334, 335.3 Mendel, " Ueber den jitzigen Stand, " etc. , Berl. Klin. Wchschr.(1890), confirms these results from his own experience.

• Paterson, " The hom*onymous Hemiopic Hallucination," reprinted from the New York Med. Journal.

5 Compare Tigges, “ Zur Theorie der Hallucin. , " Allg. Zeitschr.f.Psych. , xlviii. , vol. iv. "Vetter communicates a case of hemianopsiasinistra bil. (in normal eye- practice) associated with visual hallucin-AND ILLUSIONS. 167H. Lehert¹ states that hyperæsthesia of the sensorynerves occurs shortly before the power of feeling is lostaltogether, as a result of tumours within the skull, andP. Briquet refers to the same fact in his work ( 1853) onPeruvian bark and its preparations. Edinger had apatient, suffering from softening of both the posteriorlobes, who saw a hallucinatory light- phenomenonjust before he became blind.2 Winslow 3 notedthat just as the approach of mental disturbance isoften indicated by morbid increase of physical as wellas psychical sensibility, so apoplexies are precededby hyperesthesia, especially of the optic nerve, andby visual hallucinations (deuteroscopia). He alsoobserved that oppressive and frightful dreams preceded, with marked regularity, tuberculous meningitis,and also first attacks of epilepsy; he noted, moreover,the occurrence of hallucinations in the state betweensleep and waking long before the development ofgeneral paresis accompanied by insanity. Fromthese facts he concluded that there are morbidprocesses at work in the brain long before the actualevent. A. Tamburini, who sees in hallucination theproduct of a state of irritability of the affected.ations which continued to appear obstinately on the left, on the blindpart of the visual field . . . he explains the hemianopsia by a tumourin the white substance of the left posterior lobe, and the hallucinationswhich occurred, although the cortex was cut off from the basal ganglia,by a state of irritability in the cortex of this lobe. " Further casesreported by Henschen, Pick, Hammond, Sepilli , and others are quotedby Tigges. See also Paterson, op. cit. , and the Neurolog. Centralbl.(1892), No. II.1 Lehert, " Ueber Krebs und die mit Krebs verwechselten Geschwülste im Gehirn u. seinen Höhlen, " V. & R.'s Arch. , iii . 3 ( 1851 ) .2 Winslow, On Obscure Diseases of the Brain, etc. ( 1860).3 Compare Schirmer, Subj. Lecht. Emphind. bei total, Verl. d.Schvermög (Diss. Marburg, 1895).168 HALLUCINATIONScortical centre,¹ also considers that the affection maybe irritative, and quotes cases from Ferrier, Pooley,Atkins, and Gowers, in which the changes of thecorresponding cortical centres caused more or lesscomplete loss of visual power. During the period ofirritation, however, pronounced visual hallucinationswere observed in these patients.2Excitations of the Visual Sense.-Let us begin ourstudy ofthe so-called subjective sensations with thoseaffecting the sense of sight. Attention was earlydrawn to the physiological phenomena of this class.Every one can observe in his own experience the"light chaos " or " light dust," as the singular dis-¹ Tamburini, Riv. sperim. di freniatria e di med. leg. , vi. 1 e 2freniatria, p. 126 ( 1880)."62 Compare Tamburini in Rev. scientifique, xxviii. p. 141; and alsothe interesting case in the Neurol. Centralbl. ( 1889) . A woman withacute paranoia hallucinatoria, besides suffering from bilateral auditoryhallucinations, was also subject to distinct left- sided ones; these dis- appeared, and a stable visual hallucination (on the left side) of a whitedog leaping up " appeared, but was recognised by the patient as morbidand subjective. The visual power was not diminished. Renewal ofepileptic attacks, from which the patient had suffered before the visualhallucinations disappeared; fatal termination. Autopsy showed that inthose parts where the membranes had become adherent to the cortex,connective tissue had developed at the expense of the nerve cells. Insome preparations the cells were shown to have entirely disappeared(between the first temporosphenoidal and third fourth of the uppercentral convolution , all on the right side). The case is explained byassuming that irritative processes were set up in the affected parts of thecortex, which caused both the epileptic attacks and the unilateral hallucinations. With the destruction in the neural elements of the righthemisphere, through the development of connective tissue, the sensoryphenomena of irritation disappeared. Similar descriptions are given byGurney, " Hallucinations, " Proceedings of the S.P.R. ( 1885 ); Tigges,66'Zur Theorie der Hall. , " Allg. Zeitschr. f. Psych. , xlviii. p. 311;Luys, Gaz. des Hôp. ( 1881 ) , p. 276; Despine, Ann. méd. psych. , 6ser. , vi. p. 375; Devay, Gaz. d. Paris ( 1851 ); Curtis, Lancet, ii.No. 24 ( 1841 ).AND ILLUSIONS. 169turbance is called which occurs in the visual field inan absolutely dark room. Filehne,¹ relying on selfobservations in chronic nicotin poisoning, has tried toprove that these appearances must be regarded ascentral in their origin, that is, as arising in the visualcentres even behind the region affected by the nicotin.Generalising from these observations, he extends hishypothesis to after-images and to the sudden darkening of the visual field produced by prolonged gazingat a given point (Starrblindheit). It is to be remarked that the feebler the light the sooner theeffect is produced (although it occurs more rapidly insunlight than in diffused daylight). During thisafter-blindness the " light chaos " is to be observedjust as in an absolutely dark room, and while it stillpersists, if an object, the hand for instance, is broughtinto the line of vision, and is then at once withdrawn,a dark after-image, surrounded by a bright corona,will appear in the place which it momentarily occupied. The dark after-image disappears by degreeswith the gradual fading of the " light dust."Purkinje has described black tree- like forms, whichappeared when he had gazed at a light at a distanceof six inches from the eye, and Sauvage saw thesame when gazing at a brightly lighted wall. Müllerexplains the distinctness of these branching forms bysupposing that the retina perceives itself. Newton,Eichel, and Elliot observed fiery rings, and Krieger2seeks to refer these, as well as the pressure-phenomena,and indeed all phenomena lying outside the axis of1 Filehne , “ Über die Entstehung des Lichtstaubs, der Starrblindheitund der Nachbilder, " Arch. f. Ophthalm. , xxxi. 2, pp. 1-30.2 Krieger, " Ueber Licht und Farben- Sehen, " Deutsch. Klin. (1850),pp. 50-52.170 HALLUCINATIONSvision, to processes taking place within the compassof the optic nerve. Others, again, hold that all colourimages have their origin in the retina; Graefe¹ sawsuch disappear after enucleation of the eyeball, andafter division of the optic nerve.2The pressure images, most simply induced byturning and gently pressing the eyeball towardsthe nose, are familiar phenomena. There are alsothe flying sparks which are seen during electricstimulation of the eye, as shown by Volta, andthe sparks which follow from a violent blow onthe forehead, etc. These last played a part in acriminal trial in the early part of this century.The plaintiff, who had been the victim of an assaultin the dark, maintained that he recognised his assailantby the light of the sparks which flashed out of his owneyes when he received the blow! An " expert " whowas consulted upon the point admitted the possibility of the plaintiff's assertion.Hoppe, in particular, has devoted himself to thestudy of these entoptic phenomena, and has given adetailed account of them. He endeavours to classall visual hallucinations under this category.3"Hallucinations, unreal perceptions due to a misinterpretation of sensations received from the mere excitation of the nervesconveying sensory impressions, require some material basis;this is furnished by the very excitation of the sensory nerve,and the nature, condition, and product of this excitation. For1 Graefe, Berl. Klin. Wochenschr. , iv. 31 ( 1867).2 We may note here that Ferrier seeks to refer the eye - movements ofanimals, observed in electrical stimulation of the respective corticalregions, to such subjective light- sensations.3 J. Hoppe, " Der entoptische Inhalt des Auges und das entoptischeSehen, " etc. , Allg. Zeitschr. f. Psych. ( 1887); Erklärung der Sinnestäuschungen, etc. ( 4th edit. , 1888).AND ILLUSIONS. 171instance, a feeling of weight and pressure experienced in fallingasleep may become the tactile hallucination of a cigar heldbetween the fingers; this feeling between the fingers is not amere feeling of pressure, however, but the ' persisting afterimage' of a cigar held between the fingers. These after-images,which differ from the phenomena usually so called only in thattheir origin is not remembered, ¹ are most easily explained, if wediscard the unphysiological assumption of the brain interferingcentrifugally with the sensory paths by postulating a peripheralsense-memory. They are to be regarded, especially whendealing with the visual sense, as ' explosion products ' or metabolic products of the retina connected with its functional activity,if not as secretions, then as excretions. They are, so to speak,material images which arise, now suddenly, now gradually, moveonwards and disappear, and which also may be influenced bymovements of the eye." They possess the power of "covering "other objects; but often, when they are thin flakes, they aretransparent. They appear in four forms, as brightness, darkness, colour, and light. The most powerful cause of entopticphenomena is the yellow spot, the macula lutea itself; besideswhich the pupil and the blood- vessels play a part, chiefly asbearers of the colour-cloud surrounding them; moreover, thepulse of the central artery of the retina influences the movementas well as the sensory nerves of the muscles (muscular sense,etc. ), the motor nerves, and the muscles themselves, "for theact of vision is nothing else but a grasping with the muscles ofthe eye."" 21 See the report of C. M. Bakewell, Proceed. of the S.P.R. ,vol. viii. pp. 450 et seq. His experiment consists in gazing fixedly atan object, and then putting out the light and shutting his eyes at the same moment. If the eyes are kept closed till sleep supervenes, andimmediately on waking are directed to the white ceiling illuminatedby the morning light, and at once closed again, a belated after- image isoften called up of the object upon which the eyes were fixed beforefalling asleep. The fact that it is not always the after-image of theparticular object selected for the experiment which appears, but sometimes that of some brightly lighted object seen shortly before, seems topreclude the possibility of explaining the phenomena as due to a stateof expectancy. The experiment has been confirmed by several other observers. Compare below, p. 173, Note I,2 Compare the account, Münch. Samml. , xvi. 2 , 6 ( Appendix I. ) .172 HALLUCINATIONS66This hallucination -matter, which is either hallucination itselfor the raw material of hallucination, must, as it is somethingphysical, occupy some place, and this place is assigned to it inthe retina itself. Whether regarded as the material basis ofhallucination or as hallucination itself, it is, whether the eyes areopen or closed , located in the external world, and the hallucinatory object is referred to a greater or less distance according tothe accommodation of the eye, and will appear larger if theimaginary distance is greater. Afew examples will perhaps bestillustrate the part played by the various factors in hallucination.Examples: Suddenly in the region of the pupil a wellformed but very dull yellow face appeared; it was a luminousdisc out of the macula lutea, with a few dark streaks fromwhich I formed the face. This dull yellow face, seen just atthe beginning of [entoptic] vision (before falling asleep at halfpast ten o'clock) , indicates an over-excited state of the retinaperhaps the result of using a petroleum reading- lamp with alarge burner. " .. "Thereupon I saw two persons clad inblack in a very dark visual field. The one looked about himinquisitively, the other nodded ( flashes of light). " ... “ Thenwherever I looked I saw a window (glass- like shimmer fromthe mac. lutea).” . . . “ I could see the saw quite plainly. Itworked opposite me, moving regularly backwards and forwards.I could see no one sawing, but at the further side a confused,dark mass and a shadowy hand. The saw worked across ablack plank which lay upon a sawing-jack, and appeared beforeme as though ' sprung out of nothing '; nevertheless, it wasonly a sketch improvised from material provided at the moment.The visual field was fairly light, many long light rays streamedfrom my eyes and fell somewhat obliquely on the opaque blackmasses, and the saw itself was a shining compact sheaf ofhighly luminous rays, moved by the pulse beat, with a corresponding movement on the part of the muscles of the eye, bywhich the impression of moving figures is ordinarily conveyed.Then the saw and the rest of the light rays disappeared, but thesawing still continued; for though the pulse movement waslost, the eye muscles still kept up the sawing motion, and Iconvinced myself of it and stopped their movement. Nothingthen remained of the vision but a dark patch upon whichchanging lines of light appeared.”...AND ILLUSIONS. 173Although the attempt to refer all visual delusionsto such persistent after- images may be carried toofar, their importance, for instance, in the dream- state,and in the hallucinations of hypnosis and similarstates, is not insignificant. They are generally overlooked in the waking state, because the attention ofthe sensory faculties is preoccupied with the externalenvironment; and yet William James is of opinionthat we shall probably never be in a position fully toappreciate the importance of the part played by theseafter-images in the drama of our waking thought.¹How much more then may their importance increasewhen the interest in objective sensory impressionsflags, or when their path to the sensorium is blocked?Morbid processes, equally with the physiologicalsubjective impressions which we have hitherto beenconsidering, may be the exciting cause of hallucination. The zigzag figure of migraine is a familiarinstance. Scholz2 refers the visual hallucinations in1 66 W. James, op. cit. , ii . pp. 83 et seq. Many years ago, afterreading Maury's book, Le Sommeil et les Rêves, I began for the firsttime to observe those ideas which faintly flit through the mind at alltimes, words, visions, etc. , disconnected with the main stream ofthought, but discernible to an attention on the watch for them. Ahorse's head, a coil of rope, an anchor, are, for example, ideas whichhave come to me unsolicited whilst I have been writing these latterlines. They can often be explained by subtle links of association ,often not at all. But I have not a few times been surprised, afternoting some such idea , to find on shutting my eyes an after-image lefton the retina by some bright or dark object recently looked at, andwhich had evidently suggested the idea. ' Evidently, ' I say, becausethe general shape, size, and position of the object thought of and of after-image were the same, although the idea had details which theretinal image lacked. " To entoptic processes are also to be referredthose dream-images which persist for a time in the waking state untilexternal stimuli enforce their prior claim to attention.2 Scholz, Berl. Klin. Wchschr. , xiii. ( 1876).174 HALLUCINATIONSa case of mania associated with Bright's disease tochanges in the retina produced by the kidney affection,and to the resulting entoptic phenomena. Savage¹reports two cases of visual delusions in optic neuritis,which resulted in the one case (contracted kidney) inweakening of the visual power, and in the other(due to syphilis) in entire loss of vision. Uhthoff's2researches tend in the same direction, and point tooptic neuritis as a condition favourable to fallaciousperception in delirium tremens.3 Graefe observed subjective light sensations in phthisis bulbi. Sinogowitz5cites a case of Bright's" where the patient sufferedfrom visual hallucinations after apoplectic attacks, andwhere, in the post- mortem examination, a tumour halfan inch in diameter and reaching to the surface, wasdiscovered in the inferior corpus geniculatum.A pathological state of the sensory nerve tracts hasoften been found associated with hallucinations, andespecially with unilateral hallucinations, and in manycases these have ceased when the local lesion has¹ G. H. Savage, Journ. ofMent. Science, xxvi. p. 245 (July 1880).2 Uhthoff, 66 Untersuchungen über den Einfluss des chron. Alkoholismus auf das menschl. Seh- Organ, " Arch. f. Ophthalm. , xxii. , xxiii.3 Compare above, p. 42, Note 3.4 Graefe, Berl. Klin. Wochenschr. , iv. 31 ( 1867).5 Sinogowitz, op. cit. , p. 257.6 Guy's Hosp. Rep. ( 1837).7 H. Higier cites, among others, a case of Buch's (Arch. f. Psych.,1881 ) with auditory hallucinations of the left ear, which disappearedafter the cure of otitis media of the same side; a case of Ball's withinflammation of the middle ear and purulent discharge, where localtreatment not only cured the physical ailment but also banished theunilateral hallucinations which had gradually become established; acase of Mabille's ( Ann. méd. psych. , 1883 ), where unilateral auditoryhallucinations (on the right) ceased on the removal of a sprouting grain of corn imbedded in the wax of the ear. Local excitation is alsoindicated in a case of Raggi's, quoted in the Neurol. Centralbl. , 1884,1}1AND ILLUSIONS. 175been cured. Such unilateral excitations, however, arenot necessarily expressed by a unilateral hallucination. Both eyes may share in the vision, just as thegreen after-image which follows from prolonged gazingwith one eye at a red cross is not necessarily seenonly by the one eye in subsequent binocular vision,and may even, when the eye used in looking at thecross is closed, appear in the visual field ofthe othereye.¹"p. 41. See also Fürer, " Ueber d. Zustandekemmen von Gehörstäuschungen," Centralbl. f. Nervenhltende, N. F. , v. ( Febr. ); Krafft- Ebing," Sinnesdelirien, " p. 25; Souchon, " Ueber einseitige Hallucinationen(Dissert. Berlin, 1890); Régis, l'Encéphale ( 1881 ) , p. 46; M. Voisin,Bullet. d. Thérap. , xxxix.; Despine, Psychologie Naturelle, ii . p. 29.Magnan (Arch. de Neurologie, 1883, p. 18) communicates threecases of double unilateral hallucinations, all occurring in paranoiapatients.1 Béclard, Traité élémentaire de Physiologie; Binet, Psychologie duRaisonnement, p. 45; Delabarre, Amer. Journ. of Psychol. , ii. p. 326;Baillarger, Mémoire, etc. , p. 460; compare Herth, Kunstphysiol. , ii.pp. 464 et seq. In the " Report " the fact which we have touched onabove in the text is mentioned in connection with the experimentspublished by Mr. John Gorham in Brain ( 1881-82, vol. iv. ) , whichhave nothing to do with what we are considering here; for we areconcerned with an after-image which, arising in one eye throughmonocular stimulation , seems to belong to the unexhausted eye(through which all other visual impressions are then received) , becauseof the latter's activity, and because the attention is directed toit; while Gorham is occupied in showing that in monocular excitationsimultaneous contrast colours are produced in the other eye. Thereare, however, two cases of unilateral hallucinations reported by Féréwhich may perhaps be brought into line with the foregoing fact, if it isassumed that the concentration of attention on one- half of the body maycause a hallucination to be unilateral. In one of these cases unilateralvisual hallucinations appeared in connection with violent facial neuralgiaaccompanied by herpes zoster, and in the other unilateral auditory hallucinations were associated with severe neuralgia of the trigeminus.Thus it might be supposed that the neuralgia first prepared the way forthe hallucinatory state, and then influenced the localisation of thesensory delusions.176 HALLUCINATIONSExcitations ofthe Auditory Sense. In the auditorysense after-images, or rather after-impressions, are notoften observed. Perhaps the prolonged buzzing whichfollows a loud report may be reckoned as such, andalso the persistence with which the airs of certainsongs and waltzes, etc., haunt the ear, but thesephenomena are not really analogous to retinal afterimages. For example, when we are haunted by acertain tune, especially if it has been started inthe first instance by a real auditory sensation, it isperhaps a mere perception of objective soundsinfluenced by the persistent feeling of rhythm. Onthe other hand, the following experience of Preyer's¹is to be reckoned as a real after- impression. Afterhe had been listening to one musical note for a considerable time a loud plashing sound supervened andcontinued for some minutes.2Inadequate stimuli are a frequent cause of auditorysensations. The sound experienced if a finger is putinto the ear,³ or if one rests the ear on the hand orlies upon it, are familiar instances; and A. Fick hasdrawn attention to the noise which is caused by aninvoluntary movement of the tensor tympani following on the contraction of the masticatory muscleswhen the lower is pressed against the upper jaw.*The experimentally induced excitation of the auditory sense through galvanism may perhaps also be1 Preyer, “ Über die Grenzen der Tonwahrnehmung," Physiol.Abhndl. (Jena, 1876) .2 Compare P. Jacobs, De auditufallaci ( Diss. Bonn, 1832).3 Compare Helmholtz, Verhndlg. d. Natur-histor. Ver. z. Heidelb. ,v. pp. 153, 161 .4 F. Fuchs also recalls this in his article in the Neuro. Centralbl. , xii.22, " Über einen Fall. von subjectiven Gehörs u. Gesichtsempfindungen; Selbstbeobachtung. "AND ILLUSIONS. 177mentioned. The structure of the organ is, however,so complicated, and so little is known of what partthe stimulation actually affects, that it is hard to saywhether we are really here concerned with subjectivesounds corresponding to the sounds directly produced when the auditory nerve is called into play.Hoppe draws attention to the " clang "-producingaction of the outer ear, and it is possible that thismuscle may have played a part in such experimentsthrough feeble vibrations hardly possible to exclude.Syzianko 2 seeks to refer the sounds to the muscularcontractions occurring under galvanism, and to thebubbles which are formed during galvanic action bythe decomposition of water. Perhaps, also, soundswhich are not normally noted are of importance,such as the resonance tone of the middle ear, which,according to Kieselbach,³ is always present, but justbecause of its continued resounding is not consciouslyperceived except when the nerve is specially excited ,for instance, through electric stimulation, or whenfrom internal causes it is placed in a state ofhyperæsthesia. Internal causes of this kind appearto be indicated in the cases of mental diseasewith auditory hallucinations investigated by Jolly.It should be added, however, that Meynert is1 Brenner, Arch. f. pathol. Anat. , xxviii . 1 , 2; Schwartze, TroeltschArch. , i. 144; Jolly, Arch. f. Psych. , iv.; Buccola, Rivist. di freniatriasperimentale, xi. ( 1885 ).2 Syzianko at the seventh Congr. d. russ. Naturforsch u. Arzti . ,Odessa ( 1883) .3 Kieselbach, " Ueber d. Galvanische Reizung d. Acusticus, " Arch.f. Physiol. ( 1883); Dessoir, Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys. (Phys. Abth. ),1892, pp. 204-210.4 Jolly, Arch. f. Psych. , iv.5 Meynert, Wien. med. Blätter ( 1878) , No. 9.I2178 HALLUCINATIONSconvinced that these hallucinations have a differentorigin.According to Ehrhard, ¹ subjective auditory sensations occur (1 ) as pulsations; these, however, arenot, strictly speaking, " auditory," but organic sensations, for they depend on a heightened perception of the pulse-beat of the internal carotid artery,and may be modified by pressure on the carotid orby the action of digitalis; moreover, they are tobe observed in deaf mutes, where stimulation ofthe acoustic nerve is excluded; ( 2) from stimulation of the ramus vestibuli in catarrhs, abscesses,etc., as sensations of noises (hummings, rushings,and buzzings); (3) from stimulation of the ramuscochleæ, as sensations of " clangs " (musical tones,singing, etc. ); and (4) as a combination of (2 )and (3) from stimulation of both branches of theacoustic nerve. Lucae5 does not think that definiteauditory hallucinations should be referred to definiteaffections, and classifies them according as they areheightened or diminished by external sounds."1 Ehrhard, Berl. Klin. Wochenschr. ( 1867 ) , No. 12.2 Plater and Mercurialis report cases in which these pulsations couldbe perceived as objective sounds by persons near the patient.3 Compare Moos, " Ueber das subjective Hören wirklicher musikalische Töne, " Virch. Arch. , ix. , Band 3, Folg.; Czerny, ibid. , Bd. xi.;Schwartze, " Ueber subject. Gehörsempfindung, " Berl. Klin. Wochen- schr. (1886).4 For a different classification see Itard, Traité des maladies del'oreille et de l'audition.5 Lucae, Zur Entstehung und Behandlung d. subject. Gehörsempfindungen.6 A patient of Urbantschitsch's, to quote an example, experienced anincrease of the subjective sounds when he heard street noises, cartspassing, and so on. Again, it has sometimes been noted that theauditory hallucinations only occur when faint objective sounds areAND ILLUSIONS. 179In any case, even leaving out of account the caseswhere the sounds are supplied by the physical organism itself, a morbid affection of the peripheralorgan is not always necessary for the production ofhallucinatory sounds. Their occurrence in many railway servants, for instance, is to be referred to subtlercentral disturbance.2 Of course what has been saidabove, in treating of subjective visual sensations, as tothe irradiation of pathological stimuli, holds good forthe auditory as well as for other senses.Excitations of the Olfactory Sense. -That olfactorysensations may be induced by inadequate stimuli hasnot been absolutely demonstrated, but there is noreason to doubt such a possibility. Cases of subheard. Compare Ziehen, Psychiatrie, pp. 25 et seq. Lucae reports,on the other hand, that treatment by means of sounds (produced bytuning forks or other means) frequently results in a weakening orextinction ofthe subjective sounds.66 1 The pulsations mentioned above, the cracking sounds in yawning,in opening the Eustachian tube ( Schmidekam, Studien, " Arb. d.Kieler physiol. Instit. ) , sounds resulting from phlegm stopping the airpassages ( Hoppe, Erklärung der Sinnestäusch. ), and so on. Quadri(l'Osservatore med. di Napoli, 7 Settembre 1883) communicates acase where chronic noise in the left ear was traced to an upper tooth,which was extracted , although it appeared perfectly sound, whereupon the noises ceased. When the tooth was cut open, a small bony knobwas found dangling from it which struck upon the inner wall of thetooth like the clapper of a bell, and so produced the sound.2 Baginsky, Ueber Ohrenerkrankung bei Railway spine; Pollnowand Schwabach, Die Gehörstörungen des Lokomotivpersonals, and others.3 The hypothesis maintained by Valentin, op. cit. , that subjectivesensations of smell may be induced by pressing and suddenly lettinggo of the nostrils is denied by Fröhlich, " Ueber einige Modificationendes Geruchsinnes, " Sitzng. - Ber. d. Wien. Acad. Math. naturwiss.Klasse, iv. p. 322. Galvanism applied to the nose is also said toproduce sensations of smell, but possibly such sensations are more ofthe nature of pricklings and tinglings.180 HALLUCINATIONS2jective olfactory sensations and hallucinations indisturbances of the nerve tracts are not infrequentlyreported. Morel¹ mentions olfactory hallucinationsin a case where an abscess was found in the corpuscallosum. In a case of severe olfactory delusion, afungoid growth of the dura mater, the size of a hazelnut, was found attached to the cribriform process andsurrounded by the olfactory nerves. Lockemann 3mentions a case of vague but not disagreeableolfactory delusions. The autopsy revealed a cancerous growth only separated from the brain bymasses of cellular tissue. It stretched as far as thetrigonum olfactorium, and had quite destroyed the leftolfactory tract; the right was untouched. Sander¹speaks of epileptic attacks with subjective olfactorysensations, in destruction of the left olfactory tractby a tumour.5Meschede mentions fully-developedolfactory hallucinations in pronounced degenerationof the olfactory bulb. Emilio Carbonieri found, ina case of sensory delusions of the nasal organ,a tubercular body in the brain as big as awalnut.Excitations of the Muscular Sense. -Great importance is attributed by some authors to subjectivesensations of the muscular sense. Cramer, forinstance, seeks to refer a multitude of phenomena tothis cause.1 Morel, Traité des Maladies Mentales.2 Bericht aus d. Wiener Irrenaust, 1858 , p. 266.3 Lockemann, H'u. Pf's. Ztschrft. iii. Reihe, xii. p. 340 ( 1861 ).4 Sander, Arch. f. Fsych. , iv. pp. 234 et seq.5 Meschede, Allg. Zeitschr. f. Psych. , xxxiv. p. 261.6 E. Carbonieri, Riv. clin. , xxiv. p. 657 ( 1885) .7 A. Cramer, Die Hallucinationen im Muskelsinn bei Geisteskrankenu ihre klin. Bedeutung ( 1889).AND ILLUSIONS. 181The course of Cramer's argument is as follows:-Accordingto Meynert, ' a large part, principally indeed the anteriorpart, of the cortex is the seat of motor ideas derived froma centripetal sensory tract (the path of the muscle sense) ,which receives its impressions in the muscles, and conducts by its specific energy the sensations of movement to the cerebralcortex, where they are translated into ideas of movement andstored up as such. It is thus possible to send forth motorimpulses so accurately measured (antagonistic innervation:Rieger) that the required movement is effected at once with- out any further correction. In this way, that is in reliance onour muscle sense, we learn our native language by acquiringconceptions of the movements accompanying all changes inthe equilibrium of the parts concerned in speech; the sameprinciple holds good for the other complicated movements ofour body. How momentous then must be the hallucinatorystimulations of the muscular sense - tract through which our consciousness receives information of a movement which nevertook place! Such a process is fraught with most importancewhen it occurs in connection with ( 1 ) the group of musclesconcerned in locomotion (muscles of the trunk and the extremities); (2) the muscles used in speech; ( 3 ) the group of eye muscles.1. When a morbid process leads to stimulation of any partof the muscular sense-tract, and thus to the correspondingmuscle sense - hallucination, the stimulus will, if it be strong,pass over directly to the motor tract, and evoke the realisation of the false motor idea which had intruded into theconsciousness, leading in some cases to involuntary acts, andin many to involuntary movements. If, on the other hand,the stimulus be weak, it will call forth motor impulses toneutralise the imaginary wrong position or the movement whichhad never actually been performed, thus leading to anotherclass of involuntary actions and some involuntary ideas.66 1 Meynert, Beiträge z. Theorie d. maniakal. Bewegungserscheinungen," Arch. f. Psych. , ii. p. 639; Psychiatrie ( 1884 ) , p. 132; compareGoltz, "Verrichtungen des Gehirns, " Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. vonReichert u. Dubois- Reymond ( 1870); Hitzig, Untersuchungen über dasGehirn. Meynert is also opposed here by Munk, who connects thefeeling of innervation with the subcortical ganglia.182 HALLUCINATIONS22. We learn our native tongue as children, not only underthe guidance of the ear, but also with the aid of the muscularsense; and in the same way later, when acquiring foreignlanguages, and especially in learning by rote, we avail ourselves more or less of the same method, articulating the wordsas we learn them, and thus acquiring as precise motor ideasas possible. Such motor ideas are all the more important,because thought itself may in general be considered as a kindof internal speech, although the possibility of thought withoutwords must be admitted.¹ When thinking articulately, however, we send slight corresponding motor impulses to theparts concerned in speech, though we are usually unconsciousof so doing. Now supposing the whole muscular sense- tractto be in a state of unstable equilibrium, the motor impulseswhich issue during such thinking in words, and of which wenormally remain unconscious, will be intensified as motorsensations, just as if what was only thought had been actuallyarticulated. The patient supposes all he thinks to be accompanied by an inner voice, and often locates this voice in somepart of the body where a morbid condition (e.g. , pressure in thepericardiac region) happens to be present, or else he connectsit with objective or subjective noises (e.g. , with the special earsounds), and believes that it comes from without. When hereads he will hear the words repeated aloud after him (since theoccurrence of motor ideas is always the secondary process inreading); but if he writes (in which case the ideas of speechmovements precede the ideas of writing movements, motorideation being in this case the primary process), he seems tohear the words dictated to him (audible thinking). Secondly,if a part only of the whole centripetal tract which connectsthe organs of speech with the cortex is excited to hallucination, then only a particular motor idea will result, which willbe connected with the corresponding auditory idea, and thusobtrude itself on the consciousness as the idea of a word (involuntary ideation). Lastly, should the stimulus be strong enoughto extend into the motor region, a third phenomenon—involun29 1 Preyer, Die Seele des Kindes, p. 259; Kussmaul, Die StörungderSprache, p. 16; Stricher, “ Die Gedankenbildung der Aphasischen , 'Wien. med. Blätter, 1878, No. 1 .2 Stricker, Studien über die Sprachvorstellung ( 1880) , pp. 29 et seq.AND ILLUSIONS. 183(6tary speaking-will be developed. With reference to Kahlbaum's explanation of involuntary speaking and the involuntarymovements referred to above as cramp," it is to be notedthat co-ordinated movements can only take place under theguidance of motor ideas, whereas cramp is simply a motorphenomenon not governed by any idea; it consists merely ofunco-ordinated movements, often of isolated twitchings.3 If the motor sense is really an important factor in theformation of exact ideas of space, a hypothesis denied byHering, ' but maintained by other observers, it is easy to seethat the sensation of a movement which is not caused andaccompanied by a real movement of the eye muscles in connection with the sensory images of the optic nerve, which arealways present, necessarily leads to an erroneous perception ofspace, causing external objects which are at rest to seem inmotion, and falsely representing the position and proportion ofthings.There is nothing to be urged against this last pointof Cramer's, but it is not easy to accept his far-fetchedexplanation of the origin of involuntary ideas, and hisexplanation of auditory hallucinations is absolutelyuntenable; for the motor hallucinations which hequotes could have but one of two effects onthe speech apparatus: either they must be strongenough to extend into the motor region, in whichcase involuntary speech, or logorrhoe, ensues; or ifthey are feeble, the patient imagines that he articulateswhen he is not so doing. An auditory hallucinationcan never arise in this way. When the hallucinatoryarticulation is not associated or blended with sounds,that is to say, when the motor excitation is not accompanied by excitation of the auditory sense, so far1 Hering, "Der Raumsinn u . die Bewegungen des Auges, " in Herrmann's Handbuch, der Physiol. , vol. iii. , part i. , p. 547.

• Wundt, Grundzüge der phys. Psychol. , ii . pp. 189 et seq.; Funke,

Lehrb. der Physiol. , pp. 394 et seq. (6th edition , published by Grünhagen); Helmholz, Handbuch. d. physiol. Optik. , p. 801.REESELIBRAROF THE UNIVERSIT .184 HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS.from experiencing an auditory delusion , the patient,who believes he is speaking, must imagine that he iseither deaf or dumb, since he perceives his ( subjective)movements of articulation, but does not hear his own.voice. If excitation of the muscular sense be accompanied by subjective or objective excitation ofthe auditory sense, the perception can only be altered.in so far that the patient then seems to hear himselfspeaking with his normal voice, or in strange andunfamiliar tones, when in reality he is silent. Thusthe case presented to the observer would be that of apatient who did not answer questions because heimagined he had already done so. As a matter offact, mutism is frequently observed in associationwith " audible thinking "; but this conjunction , however brought about, certainly does not make forCramer's hypothesis, which fails to explain even theauditory hallucinations. In visual hallucinations thepatient has the sensation that he sees, in auditoryhallucinations that he hears; in hallucinations of themuscular sense he must, as Ziehen has expressedit, " have the sensation that he is uttering a certainword."¹ Ziehen, Psychiatrie ( 1894) , p. 23.CHAPTER VI.THE CONTENT OF FALLACIOUS PERCEPTION.The Content dependent ( 1 ) on Memory and Experience—(2)On the Conditions which induce the HallucinatedState-(3) On the Temperament and Mental Environment of the Individual- (4) On the Brain-state whichobtains at the Moment (Exhaustion, Concentration,Emotions, Subconscious Processes)—( 5 ) On the SensoryStimuli. —Explanation of some Facts generally misinterpreted—( 1 ) Certain phenomena usually cited insupport of retinal participation.-(2) Negative Hallucinations-The Phenomena and Nature of RapportNegative Hallucinations not explained by diversion ofattention- Their true Nature.THE content of a fallacious perception dependsprimarily on the past experience of the individual.Only what has passed in at the portals of sense canbe reproduced. The neural elements which attain.to activity may indeed be associated in the most.unfamiliar and bizarre combinations, but they canbe called into play only in the way to which theyhave been predisposed by former sensory stimuli.The so- called auditory hallucinations of deaf mutes,often adduced as an argument against this view, mayin all cases probably be explained as heightened perception of the arterial pulsation-that is to say, asunwonted, but still objective, organic sensations.It is indeed conceivable that an auditory stimulus186 HALLUCINATIONSいmay be perceived, but not as an auditory perception,reaching the cortical cells by the aid of certain nervefibres which normally convey sensations of pain .At least Politzer has furnished some evidence forsuch a view by demonstrating that in the acousticnerve, side by side with the fibres which transmitimpressions of sound, there are others which conveya specific sensibility of their own. We hear,too, of visual hallucinations in persons blind fromchildhood. But these accounts relate either tocases in which, though the blindness occurred ata very early age, visual impressions had beenreceived previous to its occurrence, or else to thosein which at least some sensibility to light anddarkness remained. The case of the blind manmentioned on page 137, Note 1 , is typical ofthe state of those blind from birth. They havenot even the ghost of an idea of light anddarkness, and consequently have no visual hallucinations.What part of experience shall be reproduced in thehallucination is, however, determined by a combinationof various circ*mstances.An important influence on the specific character ofthe false perception is generally attributed to thecause which brings about the underlying state. Thushallucinations accompanying disease almost invariably assume distressing forms. They may, it is true,begin indifferently, or even be of an agreeable natureat the outset, but as the disease progresses and theircontent becomes profoundly modified by morbid¹ A. Politzer, "Zur Theorie der Hyperesthesia Acustica, " Arch. f.Ohrenheilk, v. , sec. 206 ( 1869).AND ILLUSIONS. 187organic sensations, they tend to become more andmore vexatious and intolerable to the victim. Thesame general tendency, pointing to the same explanation, is to be observed in the visions of ether-inhaling,opium-eating, etc., as the habit leads on to ever largerdoses of the drug. Much has been written about thespecific influence of certain poisons, such as haschischor opium, on the content and emotional characterof the visions associated with them, and no doubtthey do, within certain limits, exercise such aninfluence, though to a less extent than was formerlysupposed. Other causes may modify and counteractit, and this explains why the specific action ofthe narcotic does not in all cases account for thephenomena observed. To quote one example amongmany, Schrenck- Notzing, in his experiments withhaschisch, obtained very dissimilar results. Theydo not indeed generally contradict the tendency ofthis narcotic to excite pleasant images, but nevertheless in one of his six cases the very opposite oftheusual effect was produced; the customary feeling ofwell-being was absent, and in its place came horriblesensations, nameless terrors, and the fear of madness. Even music, which affected others pleasantly,aroused in this subject distressing memories. Ofcourse the somatic effects of poisoning, the tendencyto vomit, and so on, may have contributed to theresult (compare Note 8, p. 44, on the subject of chloroform delirium ). This is indeed indicated by thefeeling of ease which followed the act of vomiting.Nevertheless, the influence of organic sensations onthe dream content was probably of secondary im-¹ Schrenck- Notzing, " Die Bedeutung narcot . Mittel für den Hypnotismus," Schriften d. Ges. f. psych. Forsch. , i. vol. 1 .188 HALLUCINATIONSportance, for we find this note appended to thedescription of the case:-"Tendency to neurastheniawith general hypochondriacal diathesis . . stronglymarked pessimistic temperament of the narcotisedsubject in normal life. " Thus we encounter anotherimportant factor neutralising the specific action ofthe drug.This is the influence of individual temperament.For just as the temperaments of the drunken areexhibited in their actions, this one becoming talkativeand boastful, and that one melancholy and silent, athird maudlin, a fourth tetchy and violent, so also arethey reflected in the hallucinations which accompanythis state.¹ The ancient Arabs held that a man's character could be learned from his dreams. They assignedvisions of fire and light to the choleric temperament,serpents, scorpions, and darkness to the melancholy,rivers, seas, ice, and snow to the phlegmatic, gardensand meadows to the sanguine. Others have heldthat the phlegmatic temperament is little liable tosense deceptions, whilst the sanguine is specially proneto them. The lunatic of sanguine temperament, saysRadestock, is puffed up and vain, his dreams are all ofmarble halls and flattering voices; the choleric patientsuspects everywhere the plots of his enemies, and hearsvoices insulting him or urging him to deeds of violence,and whilst his hallucinations are more often auditorythan visual, the contrary is the case with the melan1 Radestock, op. cit. , p. 209. "Not that temperament is transferredbodily into the dream- state, causing dreamers to be distinguished ascholeric, melancholic, sanguine, and phlegmatic. In dreams we allbelong more or less, as far as the emotions are concerned, to the sanguine class, but our individual temperament nevertheless decides the content of our visions. "2 Pfaff, Das Traumleben u. seine Deutung ( 1868) , pp. 107 et seq.AND ILLUSIONS. 189cholic, and especially, as the name implies, withreligious " visionaries."" 1Again, it has often been remarked that the sensorydeceptions vary in character with the imaginativepower of the individual-for instance, that the hallucinations of unimaginative minds tend to be meagreand colourless. Differences of age and sex also exertan influence.2"The boy dreams otherwise than the youth. The dreams ofthe prime of life are very different from those of age, when lifeitself seems sometimes half a dream; the young girl's dreamsare unlike those of womanhood and wifehood. The bright hopesand ideal enthusiasms which belong to youth cast their glamourover its dreams too; while the serious labours of the man, hisdisciplined energy, are reflected in the dreams of maturity.Maidenly timidity and reserve, the devotion of the wife, theself- sacrificing love of the mother, often find their echo indreams. All this becomes clear when we realise how greatis the influence of sex and age on the intellectual and emotionallife ofthe individual. " 3Then, again, the mental environment in which theindividual lives and moves, his calling and associates,the belief and superstitions incident to his time andcountry, not only serve to determine the ease with1 Radestock, op. cit. , p. 209; Hagen, Die Sinnestäusch. , pp. 139 etseq. Griesinger, op. cit. , p. 165, on the contrary, denies that the four categories have been empirically proved, or that any weight should be attached to them in relation to insanity.2 Radestock, op. cit. , p. 210. Speaking of the difference of the sex characteristics, ibid. , pp. 203 et seq. , he says, " Burdach contraststhem as individuality and universality, Ulrici as activity and passivity,Beneke as power and sensibility, Hartmann as conscious and unconscious power. " W. von Humboldt holds that the masculine geniusis characterised by analysis and creative activity, and the feminine bysynthesis and conservatism. Compare Lotze, Mikrokosm. ( 2nd edit. ) ,pp. 380-388; Medici Psychol. , pp. 556-560; J. Bahnsen, Beiträg zurCharakterologie, vol . ii . pp. 297 et seq.8 Spitta, op. cit. , p. 302.190 HALLUCINATIONSwhich certain ideas are reproduced, but also influencethe hallucinatory responsiveness of certain selectedelements. Thus the sufferers in olden times were tormented by witches and tempted of the devil. Thenelectricity and magnetism, telephones, and othermechanical contrivances played a part, while nowadays complaints even reach us of " telepathic influence." In Plato's time the victim was hauntedby interminable flute -playing; ¹ now he is afflictedby the constant ringing of bells. We mightalso instance " second sight," the similarity of thevisions in one race or one family, the generalresemblance of the ghosts which haunt old castles,of churchyard spectres, and of other local apparitions,besides epidemic visions.It sometimes happens, to quote another class ofsensory deceptions which has been repeatedly broughtto my notice, that when a mental process whichusually occurs with great regularity is accidentallyomitted, its place is supplied by a hallucination.Thus Herr von M- told me that when takinghis usual afternoon walk he used to see regularly onreaching a certain spot the head of the squadronreturning from their daily exercise, and crossing thestreet at some little distance in front of him.2 Oneday when he had seen this as usual it occurred tohim to wonder why the rest of the troops did notfollow, and he soon discovered that the cavalry hehad seen on this occasion were phantoms.³¹ Plato, Crito.2 This part of the communication was not meant as an explanationof the hallucination, but was merely given to fix the exact time of itsOccurrence.3 See Report, cases 19. 23 and 284. 23; and also the case quotedbelow in Chapter IX. , where two sisters, in a state of expectancy, seeAND ILLUSIONS. 191Again, it sometimes happens that a sensory impression is followed by a false perception whosecontent is not suggested by habit, but by someother circ*mstances, a state of anxiety or apprehension for instance. The following case offers agood illustration:-1"Some years ago, a friend and I rode-he on a bicycle, Ion a tricycle-on an unusually dark night in summer fromGlendalough to Rathdrum. It was drizzling rain, we had nolamps, and the road was overshadowed by trees on both sides,between which we could just see the sky-line. I was ridingslowly and carefully some ten or twenty yards in advance,guiding myself by the sky-line, when my machine chanced topass over a piece of tin or something else in the road that madehallucinatory figures. C. E. Seashore, " Measurements of Illusions andHallucinations in Normal Life, " Studies from the Yale Psychol. Laboratory, iii. ( 1895) , pp. 46 et seq. , records the following experiment: —“ Ablue bead, spheroidal, the shortest diameter being 1.8 mm. and the longest 3.5 mm. , was suspended by a fine black silk thread in front ofthe centre of a black surface surrounded by a white circular border,whose inside diameter measured 50 mm. By a concealed device thebead could be drawn away and replaced without the observer's notice.A tape line was stretched from the apparatus to a point 6.5 metresdirectly in front of it. The method employed was first to show the observer the bead in its position, then require him to go to the furtherend of the tape line and walk slowly up towards the apparatus until hecould first see the bead distinctly. When he saw the bead he read off the distance from the apparatus on the tape line. I recorded thedistance while he went back to repeat the trial nineteen times in thesame way. In the first ten trials the physical conditions were similar,but while he went back to start for the eleventh time I pulled a cord which slid the bead behind the frame. The observer, not knowingthis, walked up as usual, and when he came to, or a little beyond , thepoint where he expected to see it, he generally did see it and read off the distances as before. As a rule, the 11th , 16th, 18th, and 20thtrials were made with the bead withdrawn. About two- thirds of...the persons I tried were hallucinated. "¹ G. J. Strong, " On the Limits of Vision , " The PhilosophicalMagazine, March 1894, quoted from the Report, p. 178.192 HALLUCINATIONSa great crash. Presently my companion came up, calling to mein great concern. He had seen through the gloom my machineupset and me flung from it."The Momentary Cerebral Relations. -With thisexample we pass from individual differences oftemperament and circ*mstance to another elementin the content of a hallucination, viz. to theVbrain-state which obtains at the time of its occurrence. Here, generally speaking, two forces are tobe reckoned with-first, a negative factor, the stateof exhaustion of the over- strained elements; second ,positive factor, the increase of tension, broughtabout by secondary, and for the most part unconscious, processes of the sensory stimuli in theseelements which, being relatively in a state of rest, areable to recuperate themselves. The exhaustion ofthe elements recently stimulated explains the familiarfact that the ideas with which our waking thoughthas just been occupied do not usually furnish forthour dreams. Either these ideas are submerged forthe time or they serve only to suggest other associatedideas which appear as dream- images.On the other hand, attention, by increasing thetension of certain selected elements, has a mostpotent influence on the content of sensory deception.It enables us consciously and deliberately to construct new objects from the forms and coloursactually present to our eyes. Thus we " find the cat "in a " puzzle picture," for instance. Johannes Müllerrelates that when a child he used to busy himself bythe hour making pictures from the cracks and stainsin the wall of the opposite house. Other childrenlove to fashion out of the clouds dragons, fish,ships, and such fantastic forms. In the same way,AND ILLUSIONS. 193country folk will point out to the passing travellerthe likeness of some distinguished person in a juttingheadland or rocky cliff.The selection of the elements to be aroused bythe sensory stimuli may be brought about not onlyby the voluntary exercise of the imagination and thecapricious interpretation of forms, etc. , but involuntarily by the emotions or mental condition of themoment. When darkness has attuned the mind tofears the benighted traveller suspects a robber inevery tree stump. The lover at the trysting- placethinks every moment that he sees his mistressapproaching or hears her step (Schiller's Erwartung). Passion is proverbially blind to all defects,and endows its object with ideal beauty. A childmay seem " a little angel " in the parental eyes,though his plainness is a by- word among the neighbours. The inexperienced sportsman, in his overzeal, hears in every rustling sound the stag's approach.The sad, the anxious, the suspicious, the wrathful,read scorn, threats, affronts, etc., in every action orgesture of those about them.¹ These symptoms areof course most strongly marked in insanity, and areamongst its commonest phenomena. In mania, inmany cases of excited dementia, and also in melancholia, mistakes of identity may often be observed,and the misinterpretation of some sound, word, ormovement in accordance with the dominant insaneidea of the moment.The cases of crystal- vision quoted above make itsufficiently clear that the content of hallucination isoften influenced by the activity of processes beneath¹ See Appendix I. , case ix. 18, from the Report of the Munich Collection .13194 HALLUCINATIONSthe threshold of consciousness, that is to say, by subconscious ideas. A further example is furnished bythe following case, in which an object was voluntarilycalled up, and appeared with a distinctness and detailwhich the conscious mental image could not possiblypossess."X., a medical man, noticed that when he rubbed his eyes onwaking colour phenomena, chiefly red and golden yellow, appeared. As he idly watched them he began to try whether hecould call up particular colours by thinking about them . Hesucceeded in doing so, but only after the appearance of othercolours. He seemed to note, however, a certain regularity inthe order in which the colours appeared. Then it occurred tohim to try whether he could make himself see an object as well.He chose for his experiment a microscopic preparation of the liver. He is quite convinced that his memory-image of thisobject was confused and vague; nevertheless, the preparationsuddenly appeared before his eyes, as though seen through themicroscope, all the markings distinctly visible, and the arteries,veins, and bile ducts beautifully coloured in red, blue, andgreenish violet. "To this class also belongs the kind of hallucinationdescribed by Griesinger, in which the patient hearsagreeable words with one ear and disagreeable wordswith the other.See Report, 49. 5 and 402. 8In the first case ( pp. 142-144) .the shock of the fall on the head, and no doubt also the feeling ofterror accompanying the accident (the percipient was thrown from adog- cart), called up the hallucination of an experience which hadhappened to the percipient as an infant, but from the knowledge of which she had always been carefully guarded. In the second case theapparition of a young farmer's wife, who had been killed many years before by the falling of a tree, was called up by hearing a great gale ofwind, and bythe presence in the house of a nurse having the same nameas the victim of the accident. The percipient did not at first recognisethe figure, not indeed until a week after.AND ILLUSIONS. 19566 Magnan1 cites several such cases. A patient with pronounced epilepsy and paranoia heard insulting voices on theright side. To this stage succeeded one of exaltation and selfesteem, and now encouraging and eulogistic voices presentedthemselves on the left. A devil took possession ofhis right ear,agood genius of his left, forming together a sort of Manicheeismwhich governed him. As the ideas of greatness increased theinsulting voices on the right side desisted. An inebriate heardmockeries on the right, and consoling, reassuring words on theleft. Two other cases also refer to dipsomaniacs with doubleauditory delusions, unpleasant on the left and pleasant on theright. In all four cases the ears were normal, and the acutenessof hearing the same on both sides."Dumontpallier induced similar ' double unilateral ' hallucinations in hypnotised hysterical subjects. For instance, hedescribed an amusing scene, a village fair, to the patient'sright ear, while some one barked like a dog at his left, whereupon the right side of the face smiled, while the left wore astartled expression."I do not think that these cases can be taken asevidence for the functional independence of each halfof the brain, nor that we should be justified in concluding from them that one hemisphere was affectedbefore the other. The natural opposition of right andleft seems to me sufficient to explain the spontaneouscases. The right ear being already beset by mockingvoices, the auditory hallucinations which accompaniedthe ideas of pride attached themselves perforce to theleft ear, and mockeries on the right, flatteries on theleft, expressed the inner antithesis. Of course suggestion sufficiently accounts for the hypnotic cases.The Sensory Stimuli.-Lastly, the sensory stimulito which the hypnotised or narcotised subject isexposed, whether originating in the external worldor in the organism itself, exert an important influ1 Magnan, Archives de Neurologie, vol. vi. p. 336.196 HALLUCINATIONSence on the content of the hallucinations. Theyoperate by suggestion, by calling their relatedelement-groups into action. We have already,while considering the dream-state, met with anumber of instances showing how the dream- contentdepends on the sensory stimuli, and similarly theaction of these is to be observed in hypnotic andnarcotised subjects, in cases of intoxication¹ andspontaneous somnambulism, in many hysterical states,2etc. The Report contains a chapter dealing with theirinfluence on waking hallucinations, but it seems tome that in considering individual cases the committeemay have overlooked, or at least underrated, thisformative power of circ*mstances and surroundings.A careful distinction is drawn by the Nancy Schoolbetween the effects of stimuli-between processes dueto suggestion and self-suggestion -and the prerequisite pathological or physiological condition ofheightened suggestibility, which its researches havethus tended to elucidate. This it is which gives tothe views of this school their great advantage overthose of the Salpêtrière, and gives them, moreover, ascientific value wider than the limits of hypnotism.For by emphasising this fundamental law, by showingthe many sources of error in the introspective method,and assigning to self- observation a less importantplace, hypnotism has conferred a great benefit onpsychological science in general.In illustration of the way in which sensory stimuli1 Von Schrenk- Notzing, Die Bedeut. Narc. Mittel, etc.2 Compare Friedmann, Ueber den Wahn, pp. 38, 39. This case-to which Friedmann gives an obviously false explanation , viz. , that it isthe independent product of imaginative activity—is really the hallucin- atory expression of the " globus hystericus. "AND ILLUSIONS. 197act suggestively on the content of false perception, itmay not be amiss to quote here the well- knownexperience of Lazarus, which serves also to indicate.the part played by after- images.One very clear afternoon I was on the Kaltbad terrace atRigi looking at the Waldbruder, a rock which stands out fromthe great wall of mountains crowned by the glaciers of theTitlis, Uri- Rothstock, etc. I was looking alternately with andwithout the telescope, trying, but in vain, to make out theWaldbruder with the naked eye, though I could see it quiteplainly by the aid of the glass. After straining my eyesto no purpose, for a period of six to ten minutes, by gazingfixedly at the mountains, whose colouring changed with thevarious altitudes and declivities from violet and brown toblackish green, I gave up the attempt and turned away. Atthat moment I saw before me ( I cannot recollect whether witheyes open or shut) the figure of an absent friend, like a corpse.66 I asked myself how I had come to think of this particularfriend. In a few seconds I regained the thread of thought whichhad been interrupted by my looking at the Waldbruder, and Isoon found that a very natural association of ideas had called upmy friend's image to my mind. His appearance was thus explained, but why had he appeared as a corpse? At this point Iclosed my eyes, either because they were tired, or in order tothink the better, and at once the whole field of sight, over aconsiderable extent, became covered with the same corpse- likehue, a greenish yellow-grey. I saw at once that here was thekey to the desired explanation, and tried to call to mind theforms of other persons. And as a matter of fact these alsoappeared like corpses, standing or sitting as I wished, all had acorpse-like tint. They did not all appear as sensible phantasms,however, and moreover, when I opened my eyes the hallucinatoryfigures either disappeared altogether or became very vague anddim. . . . It is plain that here an inward reminiscence, arisingin accordance with the laws of association , had combined withan optical after- image. That is to say, that an excessive stimulation of the periphery of the optic nerve had indirectly198 HALLUCINATIONSprovoked a persistent subjective sensation of the complementarycolour, which became incorporated with a memory- image. "It is not necessary to describe here the preparatorysuggestions-stimuli applied to the sense of hearing,the muscle- sense, etc. —used in hypnotism to inducethe cerebrostatic condition favourable to hallucination.Münsterberg's¹ experiments offer a good parallel.He called out a word to the subject, and then let himhave a short glimpse of another word, illuminatedonly for .02 seconds, which had some inner connection with the word called out. In the course of theexperiment some words were selected for illumination which had no real connection with the meaningof the spoken word, but could by an easy misreadingbe changed into a word having such a connection.In 8 to 10 per cent. of the experiments a misreading,that is, a hallucination , was induced. For instance—word called, Verzweiflung ( despair); word read, Trost(consolation) instead of Triest (Trieste). Wordcalled, Nerventhätigkeit; read Muskelfunctionen instead of Modulfunctionen. Binet communicates acurious case. A friend of his, Dr. A., was walkingalong a Paris street, his mind full of an impendingexamination in botany, when he suddenly sawthe words "Verbascum thapsus " inscribed on theglass door of a restaurant. After proceeding afew paces he turned back in astonishment and readthe real inscription on the door, which was simply"bouillon." Now, the popular French name for theplant Verbascum thapsus is " bouillon blanc."From my own experience I can also furnish anexample of the formative influence of external1 Münsterberg, Beiträge zur Experimentellen Psychologie, vol. iv.(1892).AND ILLUSIONS. 199stimuli I was on the content of false perception.hurrying home one cold winter day, hungry andsomewhat tired after my work. The snow was lyingon the street. As I went along the right-hand pavement, a brown horse, led by an officer's groom, cametowards me and passed me on the left without myparticularly noting it. On turning the corner Istarted slightly, for at that moment a grey horseslipped with a clattering noise and swerved to theright close in front of me as if to recover itself. Thiswas, however, a sensory delusion. In reality, a streetboy had fallen with a loud clatter just in front of meon the frozen gutter. This noise, and the visualimpressions of the horse I had just passed andof the snow- covered ground, had become, at themoment of my startled awaking out of a daydream, blended together into the false perceptiondescribed.Apparent Retinal Action accounted for by Suggestion. Having now taken our bearings, let us turn ourattention in the next place to a group of phenomenaoften quoted to support the view that the retina sharesin the hallucinatory activity, as the result of a centrifugal wave. Some of these cases yield interestingillustrations of the manner in which the content offalse perceptions is formed. Such are the experiments of Parinaud, whose hypnotised subjects sawthe colour suggested to them on one- half of a sheetof white paper divided by a line down the middle,but saw spontaneously the complementary colouron the other half of the sheet. Again, Lombroso¹reports that with a suggested spectrum seen1 Lombroso stated in his paper read to the Psychological Congress inParis that he obtained this result in 96 per cent. of his cases.200 HALLUCINATIONSthrough suggested coloured glass he obtained thesame results as if the spectrum and coloured glasshad been actually present; and Féré and Binetfound that where two hallucinatory colours weresuperimposed upon one another, they becameblended like the corresponding rays of the spectrum .But even supposing all these experiments to reston correct observation, they are yet very far fromproving that the retina is involved. There is indeedno reason for supposing that the action is not purelycerebral. In any case it is evident that we are heredealing with the phenomena of suggestion and selfsuggestion. This applies, of course, to all cases wherethe phantasm is doubled by pressure on the eyeball, ¹or by introducing the prism, or is mirrored ina reflecting surface to all cases, in fact, wherethe hallucinatory phenomena behave as thoughamenable to optical laws.2 They all depend onartificially induced changes in the sum of theinstreaming stimuli, through which changes inthe relative tension in the centres, and thus corre1 Brewster is frequently referred to as the discoverer of this fact,whereas he attempted to distinguish between a visual phantasm and anobjective perception by maintaining that the former could not be doubledby pressure on the eyeball.2 Pick, Neurol. Centralbl. ( 1892) , No. 11. Dancing figures seenthrough a lens were diminished in size , and assumed the colour of the medium through which they were seen. The cases noted in crystalvision, where one crystal- picture shows a colour complementary to thatof the preceding one, where, for instance, a lady in a blue gown isfollowed by a boy clad in orange colour, require a different explanation.In any case they depend on entoptic phenomena which furnish thestarting-point of the visual deceptions, and act also as a factor in their content. A blue entoptic phenomenon becomes a lady in blue, asubsequent orange- coloured impression is seen as a boy, etc. But thissecond entoptic phenomenon which started the second hallucination isnot the after- image of the first hallucination, but of its point de repère.AND ILLUSIONS. 201sponding changes in perception, are brought about.¹Bernheim has succeeded in demonstrating in a seriesof experiments that all such phenomena are to bereferred to central processes, and we can only marvelthat their true explanation is still so commonly overlooked, and that they are still pressed into the servicenow of this theory and now of that. Sometimes eventheir occurrence is regarded as affording a crucial testin diagnosis. Thus Tigges, whose interesting articleI have already quoted more than once, regards it as aproof that the retina is involved if double images areproduced in insane cases by pressure on the eye andconsequent divergence of the axes. In a note³ hehimself adds, however, a case of A. Hoche's (bilateral1 This is very clearly shown in Brach's " Geschichte eines PhantasmaVisionis," Med. Zeit. , v. ver. f. H. in Pr.2 Bernheim, De la Suggestion, etc. , pp. 102 et seq. These experiments are also of interest as illustrating the way in which theimagination seeks to adapt itself to changes of circ*mstance , whilstignorant of the natural results of such changes, and how the first self- suggestion when firmly established becomes a dominant idea. In thecase of Bernheim's first subject, L. C. , the form of the question or somesuch circ*mstance seems to have suggested that the spinning of thecolour-disc would produce a change in the hallucination, which sheinterpreted as its disappearance. So in experiments 1 , 2 , the hal- lucination came to an end on each occasion she saw the white discwhite. But these two experiments and one in the waking state sufficedto make her see the revolving disc white even when it was in realityblue. ( Experiments 4-5. ) The second subject evidently did not expectthat the spinning of the disc would cause any change, for its effect on her was nil. In all the experiments recorded ( 1-3) she saw both coloursunmixed. So, in the first instance, did the third subject, but she saw them blended when she had been commanded to do so. It is evident,however, from experiment 5 that this blending of the colours did not follow optical laws, but was the effect of association , since blue andorange appeared to the subject mingled "as in a sunset, --flame- colour. "8 Loc. cit. , p. 317 , note.202 HALLUCINATIONShemianopsia inferior) in which the hallucination,although evidently conditioned centrally, was yetdoubled, the images partly overlapping on sideways pressure of the eyeball.Nor should much weight be attached to the statement frequently made, that the hallucinatory image isdoubled by pressure, or by the prism, even when thesubject has no idea of the expected result. For, as Ihave already pointed out, the cause of the alteredperception in these cases is not a cerebrostatic changeconditioned by expectation, but a change in thesum of the stimuli acting at the moment.This explains the observation of Philippo Lussana,¹that hallucinations are distorted which occur duringthe progressive darkening of the visual field inatropin poisoning-a good example of the way inwhich the distorted perception of objective impressions (resulting from the failure of co- ordinationin the eye-muscles) is transferred to the hallucination.The wavering to and fro of the appearances in nystagmus may also be instanced, the distorted figuresof fever delirium, the " gigantic " hallucinations ofepileptics with macroptic vision , etc.Again, the implication of the external sense organhas been inferred from the fact that many hallucinations vanish when the eyes are closed; 2 and when theears are stopped the haunting voices frequently cease.³But since these results may also be observed whenperipheral excitation is excluded and central ex1 Annal Univers ( Giugno, 1852).2 Reil, Rhapsodien, p. 171; Griesinger, op. cit. , p. 90; Michéa, op.cit. , chap. ii .; Leubuscher, op. cit. , p. 47; Brierre de Boismont, op. cit. ,P. 577; Allg. Zeitschr. für Psych. , xlvii . p. 52.3 Compare Pick, Neurol. Centraibl. ( 1892) , No. II.AND ILLUSIONS. 203citation clearly indicated, they can hardly be takento prove the former.¹In seeking to explain the disappearance of thephenomena on closing the eyes, we must rememberthat no change has taken place either in the generalstate favourable to hallucination or in the pathologicalstimulus. A continuation of the hallucination istherefore to be expected, and, as we shall see, doesactually occur. But with the closing of the eyes anew cerebrostatic condition steps in, for with this actthe perception of darkness is inevitably associatedthrough long experience (in the same way as anenfeebled perception of sounds is associated withstopping of the ears). Excitation is therefore setup in the element- complex which usually acts inassociation with this perception, and from the periphery at least no contrary stimulus streams in.The tension in this complex may, therefore, underfavourable circ*mstances, rise to such a height thatthe central excitation streams towards it , instead ofto the groups usually affected, causes its discharge,and so sets up a new, a " negative " hallucination.21 Tigges, loc. cit. , quotes a case of Schüle's, where in severe congestion of the left hemisphere right- sided hallucinations disappeared onclosing the eyes; further cases of Sepilli, Tomaschewsky, Simono- witsch, and others. Compare Hammond, " Unilateral Hallucinations," Med. News (Phila. , 1885) , pp. 687 et seq.2 This view is further confirmed by the observations of Urbantschitsch, and also of Wyss, of the Geneva Otological and LaryngologicalInstitute, who succeeded , by means of hypnotism, in lessening, if notaltogether abolishing, subjective noises associated with bilateral catarrhof the middle ear. Arn. Pieraccini, " Un fenomeno non ancoradescritto," etc. (Riv. sperim. di freniatria e di med. leg. , xviii. 2) ,concludes that the disappearance of the hallucination was due tosuggestion in the case he describes. This patient, an imbecile withsexual perversions ( onanistic) , suffered from visual hallucinations, which204 HALLUCINATIONSAs, however, I am convinced that the natureof these " negative hallucinations " has beengenerally misunderstood, I propose to devotesome space to their consideration; and since itis certain peculiarities in the way their contentis built up which have led to these misconceptions, this seems the proper place to deal withthem.The Negative Phenomena of Rapport. -One of themost striking phenomena of the hypnotic state, andone which early attracted the attention of observers,is what is called rapport. This consists, as is wellknown, in the establishment of a specific relationbetween the hypnotic subject and the hypnotist, oragent. In its most strongly marked form the subjectfeels only the hypnotist's touch; only the hypnotistcan move his cataleptic limbs, which remain otherwisestiff and inert; he hears only the hypnotist's voice,and obeys only his commands. Do what they willthe others present cannot get into relation with thehypnotised subject. He does not hear them, he doesnot even feel a needle thrust into his arm by one ofthem, nor the electric current if they apply it. In thehand of the agent the magnet can make the patientpass from one state into another; in the hand of thebystanders it produces no effect whatever.¹ Theperson in rapport with the subject will be heard byhim even when he speaks so low that the bystandersdisappeared if one of his eyes were closed, no matter which. He wasalso amenable to suggestions given in the waking state. H. Higier,op. cit. , aptly emphasises the influence of the psychical factor inmodifying and suppressing the hallucinations.1 Krafft- Ebing, Eine Experimentelle Studie auf dem Gebiet d.Hypnotismus, pp. 29, 35, 37.AND ILLUSIONS. 205cannot catch his words.¹ On the other hand, thesubject does not hear the hypnotist unless directlyaddressed by him, but as soon as the latter turns tohim again the words penetrate to his consciousness,are understood and obeyed. This is the most pronounced form of rapport ("isolated " rapport, as it hasbeen frequently described by the mesmerists) . Morecareful observation, however, has shown that thisform is the exception rather than the rule, at least incases where leading suggestions are scrupulouslyavoided. Rapport occurs in different persons invarious degrees, shading off from the " isolated "rapport just described on the one hand, throughcountless gradations of " special rapport " to a"general rapport," in which the commands of all andsundry are understood and obeyed; and on the otherhand, from " isolated " or exclusive rapport throughpassive " hypnosis to sleep without rapport, in whichnot even the commands or touches of the hypnotistpenetrate to the subject's consciousness. No definiteconnection has been proved between the degree ofrapport and that of suggestibility.Now rapport has been frequently connected withcertain phenomena known as " negative hallucinations,"which consist in the non- perception of certain objective sense-impressions. According to Moll,2 rapportmay be regarded as a condition " in which the actionof spontaneous attention is almost wholly in abeyance,while, on the other hand, reflex attention is abnor1 F. W. Barrett, Proc. ofthe S.P.R. , vol. i . p. 241. Frankly, thecase he mentions is not free from objections; even the most elementaryprecautions seem to have been neglected.2 Moll, " Der Rapport in der Hypnose, " Schriften d. Ges. f. psych.Forsch. , parts-iii . and iv. , p. 227.206 HALLUCINATIONSmally active. The subject who presents the phenomenon of true, exclusive rapport is not in acondition in which he can turn his attention freelyto this or that person. It is wholly directed to theperson who is able by means of some sensory impression or other to insinuate himself into the subject'sconsciousness; " hence the negative phenomena ofrapport, considered by Moll and others as negativehallucinations.¹There are, as Moll proceeds to point out, certainanalogous phenomena in the normal state which areconditioned solely by the fact that the attention isconcentrated on a certain point, generally determined by individual interest. For instance, inany gathering of children where their mothers arealso present it may be seen that each mother watchesher own child and hardly remarks the other childrenat all. She hears every word her own child utters,but the prattle of the others does not reach her.Or, again, in states of excitement and emotionalexaltation, consciousness becomes even more completely possessed by one impression. The angryman, absorbed in his wrath, ignores what is goingon around him, and turns a deaf ear to good advice.These, Moll considers, may also be regarded asnegative hallucinations, and in elucidation of thenegative hallucinations of hypnosis, he points inanother place to the success with which jugglersexecute their card tricks, etc., by diverting theattention of the on-lookers.Wundt also inclines to this view; but whilst admitting the part played by diversion of attention, he1 Ibid. , p. 225. 2 Moll, Hypnotism, p. 96.8 Wundt, Hypnotismus und Suggestion, pp. 64-66.AND ILLUSIONS. 207""ascribes a large share in the production of negativehallucinations to a second factor, " the peculiar natureof the visual and auditory impressions in drowsy andsomnambulic states; " for unless brought into prominence by special circ*mstances, such impressions tendto be perceived dimly and indistinctly, as thoughfrom a long way off. Negative hallucinations," hecontinues, " occur generally as a result of the loweredsensibility of the sensorium aided by various positivefactors, consisting partly in ' supplanting ' hallucinations, partly in the diversion of attention into anotherchannel, and partly in the simple automatic responseto suggestions. "This explanation appears to me fallacious, at leastas far as concerns hypnosis, since it postulates anindependent diminution of excitability in the sensorium. We are justified in assuming such a generaldiminution of sensibility in the organ as a result ofintoxication, anæmia, or fatigue; but in hypnosis,which, as Wundt expressly states, " does not originatein an exhausted state of the nervous system," there isno ground for a like assumption. Besides, Wundthimself elsewhere explains as a result of diversion ofattention this diminished responsiveness to stimuli,which he here regards as the chief factor in theproduction of negative hallucinations, and besidewhich he here ascribes to diverted attention only asecondary part.¹1 Wundt, op. cit. , p. 62. " This diverted attention occurs most oftenwhen, as is generally the case, the suggestion is given by a particularperson-i.e. , by the hypnotist, who thus from the outset directs thesensibility of the subject to himself, to impressions emanating fromhim, and, in accordance with the principle of compensation, lowers in acorresponding degree his power of reacting to other stimuli. Thus thephenomena of rapport are explained, being, in fact, nothing more or208 HALLUCINATIONSThus, in order to explain rapport and its negativephenomena, firm fixing of attention must be postulated—“ tonic cramp of attention, " as Stanley Hallcalls it. In other words, rapport and all its symptomsmay be referred to the different degrees of distinctness in the perception according as the elements whichthe stimuli encounter are in a state of heightenedor lowered tension. If the stimuli encounter elementsin a state of high tension the impressions are perceived hyperæsthetically; if, on the other hand, theelements affected are in a state of lowered excitability, owing to the diversion of attention and its"cramped " fixation on another point, they areunable to overstep the threshold of consciousness.The varieties of manifestation in rapport whichMoll has pointed out in his monograph on thesubject¹ are most simply explained as dependent onself- suggestion. When a certain action is suggestedto a group of hypnotised subjects in a manner whichleaves some scope for individual modifications incarrying out the command, all manner of individualdifferences will be displayed. Suppose, for example,the hypnotist says, " You are limping with the leftleg, my poor fellow; just walk up and down theroom for a minute and let me see what is wrong. "The first subject will bend his leg inwards, a secondwill carry out the command with his foot at anless than the sum of the symptoms resulting from this attention directedto the hypnotist. ' If in certain hypnotic cases sensation is reallyfeebler and less distinct, this is not to be regarded as a circ*mstanceconditioning negative rapport phenomena, but as a weaker form of therapport itself, in which the fixation of attention does not indeed cause ,the excitability of the other elements to sink to zero, but lowers it in acertain degree.1Moll, Der Rapport, etc. , pp. 51-66.AND ILLUSIONS. 209abnormal angle, a third will develop a stiff knee, afourth will drag a broken leg. Each works out theidea independently. In a series of experimentsinstituted for another purpose I regularly introducedthis experiment, and usually obtained varied representations like those just described. I was the moreastonished when, on one occasion, among a group ofvillage lads, the same type recurred over and overagain. Only one subject showed a distinct divergence from the common type. Further inquiryrevealed the fact that in the village to which allthese lads belonged there lived a man with a misshapen foot who limped in the way which all thesubjects had imitated; all, that is, with the exceptionof a lad who had broken his leg in childhood , and wasno doubt reproducing an experience of his own.And just as we find individual differences shownin these experiences, so we may assume that thedegree in which the attention is fixed on thehypnotist varies with different subjects, and that asimilar diversity obtains in the manner in which thesubject carries out his conception of the rapport.So far, at least, rapport does not depend on thedegree of suggestibility, for in certain cases verydeep hypnosis, with responsiveness to all kindsof suggestions, that is to say with " general rapport,”occurs without any appearance of rapport phenomena.¹ On the other hand, it must be admittedthat, cæteris paribus, in cases of complete exclusiverapport the suggestibility must also be greater.The negative symptoms associated with rapportare also found outside hypnosis in many other states,1 Moll, Der Rapport, etc. , p. 58.14210 HALLUCINATIONSThey are manifested, for instance, in the waking state,as a result of active or passive inattention. Thescholar whose mind is preoccupied by some abstrusetrain of thought does not notice the heavy rain, andcomes home, drenched to the skin, with his umbrellatucked under his arm. The pickpocket avails himself of a similar state of absorption to steal thepurse of the shop- gazing lady, no matter how wellguarded her pocket. The chess-player, ponderinghis next move, does not hear when he is called, andthe child playing in the street is deaf to the driver'swarning shout and to the sound of the wheels that ina moment will pass over him. By means of a timelyjoke or calculated gesture the conjurer succeeds indiverting our attention from his sleight of hand.The pickpocket's accomplice hustles us with thesame object. A friend once drew me into a discussion in the railway station which proved soabsorbing that I failed to hear the shouting and bellringing which announced the departure of my train.¹The obliviousness which causes a man to hunt allover the room for a book which he is holdingunder his arm forms a sort of connecting linkwith another class of negative phenomena parallelwith the negative phenomena of rapport, to wit,those states of emotion and excitement in whichsensory stimuli often fail to reach the consciousness. I have already quoted one case of the kindfrom Moll; and such expressions as "blind passion,""blind zeal," are proverbial. Animal life alsofurnishes us with illustrations. Dogs in the furyof fight do not hear their master's call, and are1Compare Rells, Psychol. Skizzen. , p. 97.AND ILLUSIONS. 211indifferent to the blows with which the bystandersseek to separate them. It is useless to whistle tothe greyhound when he has scented a hare. He isnot so much disobedient as deaf. The black co*ckin the breeding season falls an easy prey to thesportsman, and many a poor hare, blind and deafwith terror in the battue, runs right up to theguns. Ecstasy, where analgesia and anæsthesia aregenerally associated with pleasant hallucinations,offers further examples, and also melancholia attonita,which may be regarded as its emotional antithesis,seeing that it exhibits the same symptoms in connection with profound mental depression. Both inecstasy and melancholia the analgesia may be sogreat that severe burns and other injuries do notreach the consciousness, ¹ A melancholic, for instance, will dig his nails into his forehead or tearhis fingers till they bleed, without feeling pain.But I need not further multiply instances. They allpossess the same character-that is to say, they arespontaneously occurring non- perceptions of sensoryimpressions. We may explain them as a result ofheightened tension of the brain elements in one place,and the consequent lowering of excitability in otherregions. Consciousness is restricted, and sensoryimpressions which are not related to the specialpoint upon which attention is riveted remain dissociated.Such is the line of argument adopted by those whor*late negative hallucinations with rapport, and regardthe latter as the sum of the former, and the former asa symptom of the latter. So far as concerns the1 See Radestock, op. cit. , p. 231; Savage, op. cit. , p. 187.212 HALLUCINATIONSnegative phenomena we have just been considering,and some others which we shall presently cite, thereis nothing of weight to be urged against this view.It seems to me, however, that it is incorrect to regardthem as negative hallucinations. When we examinethe examples brought forward and seek for theirtrue explanation, we are inevitably forced to conclude that the processes concerned in them haveabsolutely no connection with hallucination. EvenWundt¹ says: " Assuredly we are not justified inregarding these phenomena, as they are so oftenregarded, and as the name implies, as processeswhich are related to hallucinations." Very true, forwe should then have to regard the raising of theliminal level of consciousness, however brought about,even if due to the lowered susceptibility of thesensorium in sleep, as a negative hallucinationprocess. Nay, if we pushed this view to its logicalconclusion, we should have to consider as a negativehallucination the non-perception of sensory impressions resulting from a blow on the head with abludgeon.The mistake lies in supposing that the negativephenomena of rapport, which we have just beenconsidering, and true negative hallucinations, which,as we shall proceed to show, are something quitedifferent, involve the same processes, merely becausethey produce practically the same subjective results-viz., the non- perception of sensory impressions.I have spoken hitherto only of the negative phenomena which occur spontaneously in hypnosis as afeature of rapport. There are others, however, due to1 Wundt, op. cit. , pp. 64-66.AND ILLUSIONS. 213direct suggestion, and, again, others which accompanypositive hallucinations. These last may perhaps beexplained in the manner already described. It isat least a tenable assumption when a positive hallucination is associated with a negative one, when theobject " covered " by the hallucinatory image is notseen, that owing to the fixation of attention on thepositive sensory deception, all objective sensoryexcitations necessarily remain below the threshold ofconsciousness. To quote a case: suppose the suggestion is given that there is a green folding screen inthe middle of the room, where in reality there isnothing, and that it is then found that the part ofthewall hidden by the imaginary screen, the engravingshanging on it, the persons passing between it and thescreen, and so forth, are no longer seen, whilst all otherpersons and objects in the room are perceived as longas they do not trench on the section of the visualfield covered by the screen. In this case the nonperception may be explained quite simply as adiversion of attention, which is to say that inobedience, possibly even unconscious obedience, to acertain sign, which may be a visual impression or themuscular sensation accompanying a particular movement ofthe head and eyes, the subject's gaze is concentrated on the place occupied by the imaginary screen,this being recognised by certain points de repère.True Negative Hallucinations.-But this theoryfalls to the ground when we seek to explain by✔it the process which takes place when an objectsimply disappears. Suppose I show A., who ishypnotised, a wine-glass which is standing on thetable before him, and tell him that it will vanishon a certain signal being given. I do not divert his214 HALLUCINATIONSattention from the glass; on the contrary, I direct hisattention to it, and in still higher degree, since he ishypnotised, than if I gave him the assurance in thewaking state. In any case it would be very farfetched to suppose that A., on being told that theglass would disappear when I made a clicking soundwith my nails, should understand and develop thesuggestion in the sense that on the signal being givenhe was to notice everything else in the room, but notto notice the glass. The idea actually called forth bymy words would be " the disappearance of this glass."The brain process which accompanies the idea ofthe invisibility of the glass depends in each individual,and in each separate experiment, on the activity ofever-varying elements, some of which are excited bymomentary sensory stimuli from the surroundings ofthe glass, whilst others become active through association, according to the past experience and mentalhabits of the subject. Since the co- operation of theselatter factors has been rendered possible only by theaction of positive influences, it may be said, thoughthe expression is no doubt more popular thanpsychologically correct, that such a “ negative ” imageis constituted from the combination of a number of" positive " images. The wide scope which thesuggestion of a negative hallucination leaves forindividual development places it in the same category with the suggestions which are couched invague terms, and given without details (as in thecases of suggested lameness quoted above). A negative suggestion is, in fact, nothing but an extremelyvague positive suggestion clothed in negative form.The suggestion, " This glass is no longer visible," isjust as much a command to see something else as theAND ILLUSIONS. 215suggestion, " You cannot walk properly," is an invitation to represent some kind of lameness. As withany other vague suggestion, each subject will interpretthe suggested negative hallucination in a characteristic manner. In one case the bare surface of thetable, in another the uninterrupted pattern of thewall-paper; in a third, perhaps a curdling mistoccupying the place of the glass supplies the chieffeature of the negative hallucination-" the nonperception of this glass. " In many subjects, however, the response to the command does not takethe form of a hallucination at all, but of a convictionthat they have been forbidden to look at the glass.I observed lately in a series of cases that upon thecommand, " You are not to see X.," the hypnotisedsubjects looked away from the person indicated. Iftold to look about them they obeyed, but alwaysavoided looking point- blank at X., and would glanceup or down whenever his figure was about to comeinto the field of vision.¹ A state which Bernheim hasproposed to call " psychic blindness " 2 occurs in response to the vague suggestion " not to see," and isexpressed in the most various ways, now by the hallucination of a curdling grey mist, and again perhaps bythe reproduction of the effect caused by shutting theeyes or entering a dark room, and so on (see, above, theexplanation of the disappearance of visual phantomson closing the eyes, an act which suggests the disappearance of visual images). It is therefore clear¹ Only on a superficial view can such cases be attributed to oversightthrough inattention . Careful observation soon shows in the majority ofcases that there is a positive , energetic averting of the gaze from X. , oran anxious endeavour not to catch sight of him.2 (Not soul- blindness) , Bernheim, De la Suggestion, etc.216 HALLUCINATIONSthat there is a fundamental distinction between thecontent of consciousness in a subject rendered"psychically blind " by a negative suggestion, and inone whose consciousness is diverted into a particularchannel, who absorbed in an auditory hallucination,for instance, becomes insensible to impressions oflight. In the latter case visual sensation formsno part of consciousness, but in the former avisual sensation, subjective, of course, and differingin different individuals, is included in the content ofconsciousness. " Psychic blindness," says Bernheim,¹whose term is here more correct than his theory, “ isthe blindness which comes through imagination. Itis due to the destruction of the image throughpsychical activity," and not, be it added, throughdiversion of psychical activity.It might of course be objected that the negativecharacter of the hallucination is the mere resultof the restriction of consciousness to the positivephenomena which accompany it, that in the lastresort non-perception itself is only the diversion ofattention. Such would seem to be Wundt's² view,since he says—" I think we must here assume that the idea that tactile sensations will no longer be experienced has the effect of a positivediversion of the consciousness to other sensory impressions, ifonly to the acoustic images corresponding to the words, ' Yourskin is no longer sensitive. ' I find approximations to this inthe normal state. There is a well-known psychical device forlessening the pain of an operation, the extraction of a tooth, forexample, which consists either in fixing one's attention on someother object, or in holding firmly to the thought, ' I feel no pain.'In my opinion the process is in these two cases one and thesame."1 Bernheim, ibid. 2 Wundt, op. cit. , p. 65.PERUNIVAND ILLUSIONS.CALIFORMA 217In reality, however, this view is founded on amisconception. Of course it is possible by fixingthe attention on one subject to drive all otherimpressions out of the mind. But the true negativehallucinations which we have just described cannotbe thus explained; for the positive hallucination isitself the hallucinatory non-perception of the externalobject, and is in nowise to be regarded as something ✔different from the negative hallucination, as somethingaccompanying it. The perception of a dark, formlessmist, for instance, in the place of the glass, is for thatparticular subject the " non- perception," the " blindness. " If a hypnotised subject is taken to a cross-roadand there told not to go on, the negative idea ofmotion instilled into him will, it is true, be realisedfor the bystanders in a positive action; but thestanding still of A., B.'s turning to the right, C.'swheeling to the left, D.'s marking time, and E.'swalking backwards, are not merely something whichaccompanies "the not going on," but are in fact "thenot going on " itself. For the same reason it isincorrect to speak of a positive sensory delusion as"" combined " or " associated with " a negative one,though the expression is often used, and I havemyself employed it before my own view had been.fully developed. When the delusion that he is ina dungeon is suggested to a hypnotic subject, andall his sense-impressions are coloured by it, so thatthe papered wall of the room becomes for him adamp dungeon wall, then the perception " dungeonwall " is identical with the non-perception of thewall-paper; or, to turn to our former illustration,the perception of a green screen in a certain place,localised by cutaneous sensibility, eye accommoda-218 HALLUCINATIONStion, etc., is one and the same with the non- perceptionof the persons passing behind it.¹Moll raises another objection. He points to those 2negative hallucinations which vanish the moment theattention is drawn to the invisible object."We can see clearly in such cases that the negative hallucination is caused by the diversion of the attention from theobject, and that the direction of the attention to it is a countersuggestion. I say to a subject, ' When you wake, X. will havegone away.' When he wakes, and is asked how many peopleare present, he says ' Two; you and I.' I then point out X.,and tell the subject to look at him. Thereupon he sees X., andthe suggestion has lost its effect. "In my opinion Moll himself gives the right explanation of the phenomenon in the words, " the direction ofthe attention is a counter- suggestion." At least I havenever seen a case where X. became visible if every suggestion which might arouse the idea ofseeing him againwas carefully excluded. I invariably succeeded inturning the subject's attention to the place where X.stood without destroying the negative hallucination.We are therefore led to conclude from all theseBy demonstrating the impossibility of separating the positive andnegative sides of a hallucination, the theory here briefly indicateddisposes of Moll's contention that no valid objection can be urgedagainst his view of the part played in negative hallucinations by diversion of attention. Of course non- perception through oversightmay be induced by skilful suggestion, or by auto suggestive development of a command, for instance, if the subject concentrates his entireattention on the search for the vanished object; but this would be,like the efforts not to see X. in the case given above, only an individualinterpretation of a vaguely expressed suggestion , which had not produced a hallucination but an overmastering inclination, and the actingout of that inclination . If, however, a hallucination is produced, then,as we have stated above, diversion of attention can no longer be considered as a specific element to which a part can be assigned or denied.2 Moll, Hypnotism (fourth English edition), p. 255.AND ILLUSIONS. 219considerations that negative hallucinations, in contradistinction to the negative phenomena of rapport,which have a dissociative character, are conditionedby cerebrostatic enforced association-that is to say,that they are true hallucinations in every sense, andthe only negative thing about them is the verbal form.of the suggestion.Experiment confirms this conclusion. The anomalous results obtained in certain cases are not to beexplained by diversion of attention , but force us toassume that the effect of the suggestion is to associatewith a particular sensory impression the activity ofcertain element-groups which correspond to the ideaofthe non-perception of a certain object. W. James¹states that when the subject had been made blind toa certain pencil line by suggestion he would sometimesregain his sight of it when it was combined withother lines into a figure, a face, or some such object.The following case of my own forms a good counterpart to the experiment in which the coins taken outof an " invisible " purse2 proved also invisible to thesubject, and serves to show how these anomalies ofsuggestion may be elucidated from the presentstandpoint.S―, a village lad aged eighteen, was hypnotised by theNancy method. His capacity for negative hallucinations wassoon established, for upon suggestion several persons becameinvisible to him both during and after the hypnotic trance, eventhough their efforts to attract his attention were not of themildest description, and although ordinarily these very individuals possessed great authority over him. A Swedish matchwith a brown head was then shown to S ————, the white endhaving first been charred a little on one side. It was then1 W. James, Princ. of Psych. , ii . p. 608.2 Binet and Féré, Animal Magnetism, p. 308.220 HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS.suggested that the match was lost, that he could not see it, andso on. The experiment proceeded in the usual way, with theresult that S remained blind to the match when the pointde repère was visible to him, but saw the match when the pointde repère was hidden.In the middle of this experiment two matches were shown toSinsuch a way that he could only see the brown headsand a part of the white wood. According to the rule he shouldhave seen two matches, but to the usual question, "How manymatches do I now hold? " he replied , " None."This experiment, as well as some others whichfollowed it and yielded similar results ( unfortunatelysymptoms of " training " soon appeared in the case ofS-), seems to contradict the rule. This contradiction disappears, however, if we assume that Smistook the heads of the matches, that is to say,the brownish- black visual impression emanating fromthem, for the brownish-black point de repère. But themost interesting thing is that he transferred thenon-perception of one match to several, indifferently,whether one, two, or six matches were presented tohim. It is noteworthy also that on the first occasionof the transference of the negative impression fromone match to several the answer to the question wasnoticeably long in coming, a circ*mstance whichmanifestly depends on the fact that the non- perceptionin this case did not, as in the preceding instances,take place automatically, but was constructive incharacter.¹1 W. James, op. cit. , ii . p. 607, gives another curious case wherethe person whom the subject was not to see still remained visible, butappeared as a stranger. It should be noted that just as the spon.taneous negative phenomena of rapport have been mistakenly classedwith negative hallucinations, so the spontaneous amnesia of somnam.bulism has been confused with amnesia induced by suggestion.reality the same kind of difference exists in both cases.InCHAPTER VII.TILE INITIATION OF FALLACIOUS PERCEPTION.The Problem: How are Reflex Hallucinations to be accountedfor?—(1 ) Synæsthesia, ( 2 ) Hallucinations of Memory, aspossible explanations -Author's attempt to explain thembydistinguishingbetween thepreparatory andthe startingFactor-A New Conception ofthe Point de Repère.The Problem.-The dependence of hallucinationson sensory stimuli has been more or less indicated byprevious writers, especially in treating of dreams.But they have for the most part contented themselves with referring the perception to some definitestimulus, and explaining the particular form of thedream by individual reaction. Consequently noserious attempt has been made to elucidate theproblem with which I now propose to deal . Howcomes it, we must ask, that sensory stimulation ofone sense may produce a hallucinatory response inanother, that, for instance, the temperature sensationexperienced by a sleeper when the bed-clothes slipoff may give rise to a visual hallucination of icebergsand polar bears; or again, that a verbal suggestiongiven to a hypnotic subject may induce the temperature hallucination of touching red- hot iron?Synæsthesia.- In the first place, we might answer222 HALLUCINATIONSthis question by assuming that the effect of a stimuluson one sense may, under certain conditions, penetrateinto other sensory regions, reaching by some meansor other beyond the elements first affected, andarousing alien element-groups in a second sense.This view has received some experimental support,and has been adopted, among others, by Jolly on thestrength of his own observations. Thus he found inone case that electrical stimulation of the fifth nerveproduced not only subjective sounds, but full - fledgedauditory hallucinations, which did not correspond tothe opening and closing of the current, but appearedunder all conditions in which pain was produced.¹Chvosteck, however, opposes this conclusion, andthinks the flow through the trigeminus less probablethan that the auditory nerve was directly affected bythe strength of the current. For though he obtainedlike results in a similar series of experiments, theseonly occurred under galvanism; other excitations—pricking, pinching, etc.-failed to produce any auditory sensations whatsoever. Again, Higier, op. cit.,quotes a case of Hutchinson's where a totally blind.patient experienced visual hallucinations as a resultof irritation of the cornea due to inflammation. Healso cites two cases of Féré's where visual hallucinations occurred, in the one case in association withneuralgia of the optic nerve, and in the other withneuralgia of the trigeminus. These cases, he thinks,1 Jolly, Arch. f. Psych. , iv.32 Chvosteck, Jahrb. f. Psych. , xi. 3 .3 Binet's experiments are also interesting, “ Recherches sur les Altérations de la Conscience chez les Hystériques, " Rev. Phil. , xxvii. p. 165.Hemianæsthetic hysterics were secretly pricked with a needle on theirinsensitive region . The prick was not felt, but the subject saw at thesame moment a light or dark spot.AND ILLUSIONS. 223must be explained in the way indicated . It seems tome, however, that the explanation of the last twocases suggested on page 175, Note I , covers thefacts more easily and satisfactorily. So much as tothe experimental evidence, which, it must be owned,is of a somewhat ambiguous character. It is, however, upon the phenomenon of synæsthesia, to whichmuch attention has recently been directed, that thistheory chiefly depends for support.Synæsthesia, that is to say constant involuntaryassociation of a certain image or (subjective) sensoryimpression with an actual sensation belonging toanother sense, is observed in a variety of forms.Thus a particular taste may call up the image orsensation of a particular colour (taste- photism, tastechromatism). There are also chromatisms of smell,temperature, muscular resistance, etc.; or again, thesight of a particular colour may be associated with.the "subjective " perception of each definite musicalsound or " clang " (light- phonism). The most conspicuous member of the whole group of synæsthesiæis audition colorée, or sound- seeing-that is to say,the peremptory association of a definite " subjective "colour sensation with the hearing of an actual sound.I therefore propose to consider it in some detail.The special colour sensations associated with particular " clangs " always remain constant in the sameindividual, but the relation is purely individual andnot referable to any general law. That is to say thatwhilst one person on hearing the vowel a always seeswhite, for another the colour invariably associatedwith this vowel may be light blue. O is often associated with black; indeed, deep tones and vowelsounds seem generally to be associated with dark,224 HALLUCINATIONSand sharp, high- sounding vowels with the lightercolour sensations. The kind of sound which produces these colour sensations also varies in differentindividuals. In one case they may be related tothe vowel- sounds, in another to the timbre of thespeaker's voice. In some cases the tones of variousmusical instruments are associated with definitecolour sensations. The degree of externality withwhich the chromatisms appear also varies verymuch; they may consist in the mere spontaneousmental association of a certain colour with a certain sound, or they may occur as fully- developedobjective sensations. I select the following interesting case from the account of his experiments givenby Professor Gruber, of Jassy, at the London International Congress of Experimental Psychology. Thesubject was a Roumanian friend of Professor Gruber's,whom he describes as a man of exceptional endowments-a gifted scholar, antiquarian, etc. —with amind peculiarly well qualified for the task of selfobservation.¹"Whilst I repeated the vowels slowly and distinctly mysubject assumed an attitude of expectant attention, andpictured them to himself in his own handwriting as I utteredthem-a, bright white; e, bright yellow; i, bright blue; o,deep black; u, faded black; and the two other vowelsounds peculiar to the Roumanian language, ä and î, brownand blackish- grey respectively. The same with the consonants, but on hearing these he perceived two colours, onebelonging to the consonant itself and the other to the vowelwhich occurs in its name. For instance, on hearing F [ ef] hesaw the letter written in scarlet with a narrow band of orangecolour on the left side . . . the orange colour was formed by1 Internat. Congress of Experimental Psychology, Second Session,London, 1892, pp. 10 et seq.AND ILLUSIONS. 225the blending of the bright yellow of the e with the scarlet ofthe f. If I reversed the pronunciation of the letter and calledit fé,' then the orange- coloured streak appeared on the rightside. I found it possible to isolate the special colour of theTo accomplish this it was necessary that thesubject should not hear the name- sound of the consonant, butshould try to picture the written letter vividly and at the sametime to suppress its sound- image.consonants."The diphthongs, triphthongs, syllables, and substantives—that is to say, the ' phonetic chromatisms ' of spoken languageappeared as horizontal bands of colour consisting of vertical stripes.These stripes, or ' amplitudes,' corresponded to the sound ofthe words. The diphthongs, of which the Roumanian languagepossesses twenty-three, exhibited very remarkable characteristics. We found that the bands corresponding to thesediphthongs were all of the same length (70 millimetres), andalso of the same height (35 mm. ). Thus the form of thechromatism corresponding to a diphthong was proved to bethat of a rectangle formed by two squares of 35 mm. placedside by side. ( I shall explain immediately how we obtainedthese measurements. ) The length of the stripes, or ' amplitudes,'on the other hand, was not the same for all diphthongs.According to the variations of the amplitudes we were ableto distinguish five classes, and these classes corresponded tothe five natural philological classes of diphthongs in theRoumanian language.¹ I succeeded by objective measurements in establishing the following law in the case of thissubject while the length of the amplitudes varies accordingto the class to which the diphthong belongs, their sum remainsconstant."The chromatisms which we found to correspond to numberswere not rectangles, but circles and ellipses. But first let medescribe the objective method I employed to measure thevarious chromatisms. Let us take the example with whichwe started. The number doî (two) is for my subject a chroma1 Ebers states that Lepsius, the Egyptologist, used his chromatismsas a guide in his philological inquiries, and Galton ( Inquiries into Human Faculty) gives the case of a lady who found the coloursassociated with the letters a great help to her in spelling certain words.15226 HALLUCINATIONStism of a pure bright yellow, deeper towards the middle, somewhat fainter towards the edge, but clearly defined by a circularoutline. My subject has the power of externalising his chromatisms; he projects them, for instance, upon the opposite wall,at no matter what distance. I chose for our experiments adistance of three metres, which is that at which his vision ismost distinct. I then cut out a disc of white paper, which Isupposed to be about the same size as his chromatism of thenumber dot, and surrounded it with bright red. The subjectthen projected his chromatism into the white disc, but thedisc proved to be smaller than his chromatism, for he saw acircle of orange caused by the superposition of its subjectiveyellow on the objective scarlet. I enlarged the disc. Thistime he saw a white ring between the objective scarlet and thesubjective yellow. The paper disc was now too large, so wecontinued experimenting till we got the edges of the chromatism to touch precisely the edges of the white disc. We werethus able to judge of the shape of the chromatisms, andcould measure them to a millimetre. . . . In a long series ofexperiments we determined, by this empirical method, the exactsize and form of all the chromatisms of numbers and diphthongs.No matter how often we repeated the experiments, the resultswere always the same. If the experiments with the diphthongshad yielded remarkable results, in the case of the numbers astill greater surprise was in store for us."As before, we took two dimensions, height and length, orvertical and horizontal diameter, but in this case we found thatthe vertical diameter depended on the number of syllables in the name. For instance, the monosyllable doi had a verticaldiameter of 21 mm. , equal to the horizontal diameter, but thedissyllable patru (four) a vertical diameter of 22 mm. , while itshorizontal diameter remained at 21; and patru-zeci çi patru(forty-four) had a vertical diameter of 26 mm. Thus we foundthat with every added syllable the vertical diameter increasedby a millimetre. Innumerable control- experiments of everysort yielded the same result. The horizontal diameter, on theother hand, corresponded to the class to which the numberbelonged that is to say, to the units, tens, or hundreds, etc. ,and remained the same for all the numbers of the same class.For example, 100 and 999 exhibited the same horizontalAND ILLUSIONS. 227diameter. The following is a table of the horizontal diametersofthe chromatisms:-UnitsTens• 21 mm.· 23 ""Hundreds 26 99Thousands . • 30 mm.35 ",.etc ووTens of thousandsHundreds of thousands 4I" In comparing these numbers, which we had obtained quiteempirically, we found that they followed a very simple rule.The difference in the horizontal diameters between class andclass corresponded to the series of the natural numbers, thus: -Diameters: 21 23 26 30 35 41 48 56 65 75Differences: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ΙΟ" But what astonished us most of all was the fact that both the' phonetic ' element (which grew vertically) and the arithmetical or psychical element (which grew horizontally) increasedby the same unit, a millimetre. "These observations, which of course only holdgood of this particular subject, in that they indicatehighly complex subconscious processes capable ofachieving results impossible to the normal consciousness, testify at least to the genuineness of the phenomena.¹The question now to be considered is whether insuch a case we have to deal with real double- sensations, or only with phenomena of association. EvenMyers considers it more probable that slight cases1 It is of course difficult to say how far such a scheme may or maynot depend on unconscious and unintentional suggestion on the part ofthe observers acting on the neuropathic constitution of the subject.(See Congrès internat. de Psychologie physiologique, Paris, p. 96. ) Compare the case in Ziehen's Psychiatrie, p. 19, where the phenomenon isapparently due to an association of addition. For instance, the percipient saw the sum of two numbers, for which his respective chromatisms were red and yellow, as orange coloured. The results, however,of other observations with the same patient, which have been kindlyfurnished to me, do not support this view.2 Proceed. ofthe S.P.R. , 1892 , p. 457; Dessoir, Arch. f. Physiol.und Anat. , 1892.228 HALLUCINATIONSare to be ascribed to association, due for the mostpart to infantile experience working upon an innatepredisposition. But in cases where the phenomenaare found in fuller development he considers thatthere is real synæsthesia, an actual irradiation ofsensitivity into the sphere of a second sense, and hepoints, in support of his view, to the many forms inwhich these reflexes have been found to occur, ¹ and theabnormal precision and inevitableness with which theyact, and, further, to the ascertained fact that only avery small percentage of persons can rememberwhen their " photisms " or "chromatisms " began.2S. Epstein draws a distinction between corticalphenomena and phenomena which, according to him,originate somewhat in the following manner:—3Only a small proportion of the bundle of nerve fibres whichcarry sound sensations reach the cortex; the greater numberbranch off sooner, forming a regular network of axis- cylinderprolongations, which extend into the anterior corpora quadrigemina and there terminate. These axis- cylinder prolongations are connected first with the trochlear, oculomotor, andabducens nerves; secondly, with the fibres of the optic nerveproceeding from the superior part of the corp. quad. Inaccordance with these anatomical indications a small partonly of the excitation started by the acoustic stimulus wouldbe directed to the cortex, while the rest reaching the corp.quad. would exert a reflex centrifugal action through the fibresofthe optic nerve on the retina.1 A case is described in the Revue de l'Hypnotisme, December 1892,p. 185, where a man who had long exhibited audition coloréedeveloped gustation colorée in addition , when in a low state of health.2 It appears from Prof. Flournoy's Enquête sur l'au.iition coloréethat among 213 persons presenting synæsthesia only 48 could assign adate to the origin of these associations.3 A lecture delivered before the third International Congress ofPhysiology at Berne, 1895.AND ILLUSIONS. 229The question whether the phenomena are to beregarded as pathological or physiological has been variously answered. The pathological view is advanced byNeiglick and Steinbrügge, Féré postulates a " tonalitéparticulière de l'organisme," while Perroud, Chabalier, and Urbantschitsch consider the phenomena asphysiological. Urbantschitsch founds his view onthe results of his own experiments. He succeededthrough excitations of the senses of smell and tastein arousing reflex sensations in other senses in thegreat majority of his subjects,2 but observed thatnotwithstanding the frequency with which they weremanifested, a combination of favourable circ*mstanceswas, as a rule, required to evoke them. Consequentlyhe considers that the remarkable thing about thesesynæsthesiæ is not their mere occurrence, but thegreat vividness which they assume in some cases,and the fixed character of the associations. In anycase, it seems probable that heredity plays a part,since whole families are occasionally found topossess this faculty, though the nature of the associated sensations differs in different members.Too little is yet known of the subject, however, tojustify us in explaining hallucinations as " synæsthesia"; pending further inquiry, we must ratherregard synæsthesia as hallucinations whose regularrecurrence and fixed character point to an automaticassociation acquired very early in life.³1 Compare also the remarks in the report of the Congrès Internationalde Psychol. Physiol. , Paris, 1890, pp. 94-96.2 From the results of Fechner's inquiry it would appear that about afourth of the persons answering are subject to synæsthesia.3 For literature see Nussbaumer, " Ueber subjective Farbenempfindungen, die durch objective Gehörsempfindungen erzeugt werden, "Wien. med. Wochenschr. , xxiii. ( 1873 ) , p. 123; Bleuler und Lehmann ,230 HALLUCINATIONSHallucination ofMemory as apossible Explanation.-Again, we might answer the question in another way,by assuming that no hallucination in a second sensereally takes place at all; that in the case we haveused to illustrate this point there may have been noactual visual hallucination of polar bears and icebergs, but only an extremely complex perception ofthe stimulation of the temperature sense caused bythe slipping off of the bed- clothes. Thus the coldwould be perceived as "the cold felt on seeing polarbears and icebergs," and the complex would be splitup in the memory into parts separated in time. Thepossibility of such an explanation has already beenZwangsmässige Lichtempfindung durch Schall u. verwandte Erscheinungen, etc. ( 1881 ); J. Stinde, Farbige Töne und tönende Farben( 1885); Steinbrügge, Ueber secundäre Sinnesempfindungen ( 1887 );Urbantschitsch, Arch. f. Physiol. , xlii. ( 1888 ) , p. 154; Krohn," Pseudo- chromaesthesy, " Am. Journ. of Psychology, v.; Binet," L'audition colorée, " Rev. d. Deux Mondes ( 1 Oct. 1892); F.Suarez de Mendoza, L'audition colorée ( 1892) . Such a case asthe following, described by Arndt, cannot be classed here: -" Apatient suffering from hernia experienced auditory hallucinationswhich he believed to be independent and primary. But observationshowed that they varied with the disease, becoming more violent as itbecome acute, and ceasing altogether when Herr A. succeeded inreducing the rupture permanently. " Hoppe explains this correctly as a reflex psychosis with hallucinations, not as direct reflexhallucinations. Nor can the following case, reported by F. deRause, Gaz. d. Paris ( 1871 ) , 33, be classed as such. In a gunshot wound in the lungs the ball had entered just below the spinascapulæ and come out in the first intercostal space. Every timethat lactic acid diluted with water was injected into the anteriorwound gustatory sensations were experienced. The patient couldrecognise the taste of the liquids injected -of tea, for instance -andcould even tell whether the mixture was strong or weak. Whenthe liquid was injected into the posterior wound the experiment didnot succeed. Chassinat, Gaz. d. Paris ( 1871 ) , 35, reports a similar case.AND ILLUSIONS. 231indicated above, but it would be no easy matter tofind unequivocal proofs of its general applicability.Moreover, the difficulties admit of another explanation.A Third Hypothesis. -This third hypothesis allowsus to suppose that a visual hallucination indeed takesplace, but that the temperature stimulus is not tobe regarded as the starting factor. The changeof temperature co- operates with many other circ*mstances to bring about the required state of heightenedtension in a particular element complex, and thusdirects to it the irradiation of processes initiatedotherwise by stimulation of the visual sense. It onlyprepares the way for the hallucination, it exerts onlya suggestive influence on its content. To use ametaphor, it lifts the lid from a powder-cask, so thata falling spark explodes this particular cask and notone of the others which remain closed.But the initiation of the hallucination by a visualstimulus is not to be conceived of in Binet's sense,that is if I rightly understand him. From the resultsof his experiments in co- operation with Féré—e.g.,from the doubling of the imaginary object by theprism, and its reflection in a mirror-Binet was ledto conclude that the hallucination is always attachedto a certain sensation derived from a real externalsource.¹ He maintains that a sensory nucleus for thehallucination is in each case furnished by some specialobject (point de repère), which becomes completelyovergrown and obscured by the hallucinatory super1 Moll, Hypnotism, p. 104, mentions the similar results obtained byJendrássik: " If a d is drawn with the finger on a sheet of white paper,and it is suggested that the d is real, the subject sees the d. If thepaper is turned upside down he sees p, and in the looking- glass 7. "دو232 HALLUCINATIONSstructure; some minute black speck, for instance,upon a card may, according to him, furnish the pointde repère for a hallucinatory picture projected uponit, and when the object to which the hallucinationis attached is doubled by a prism, enlarged by amagnifying-glass, or reflected in a mirror, the sensorystimuli proceeding from it become the nucleus of ahallucination, which is in like manner doubled, enlarged, or reflected.But it has been proved by other observers thathallucinations do not always follow optical laws.¹Further, we may ask, with Gurney, how the hallucination can be explained when it appears in freespace where no special points of external excitationcan possibly be connected with it; for instance, if thephantasm of a woman's form appears immediately infront of me, and my eyes are firmly riveted to it, thatis to say, are focussed on a point in clear space wherethere is nothing objective to be seen? A mark on thewall of the room some distance behind the figure canhardly be supposed to form the nucleus of the hallucination in this case, since to see the wall wouldrequire a very different adjustment of the eyes.Besides, how is it in any case conceivable that apoint of external excitation situated in one placecould act as the point de repère of a hallucination appearing elsewhere? New difficulties arise when weseek to explain phantasms appearing in the dark, and1 Compare James, Principles of Psychol. , ii . p. 130. Bernheim, Dela Suggestion, etc. , pp . 101-105 , seems to me to have firmly establishedthe suggestive origin of the whole series of phenomena. The realnature of the point de repère is well brought out in Dixey's experiments,and also in those of Mrs. Sidgwick ( Report, pp. 108, 109) .2 Gurney, op. cit.AND ILLUSIONS. 233still more when we attempt to account for movinghallucinations on this theory. In the latter case,for instance, the point de repère cannot follow thephantasm, and we should have to suppose that thepercipient attaches his hallucination in turn to all theobjects in front of which it glides. Again, how wouldM. Binet explain the behaviour of an apparition whichcame directly towards the percipient; for instance, thephantasm of a bird flying towards him-a form ofhallucination in connection with which convergenceof the eyes has been observed? Is it possible toconceive that the phantasm can detach itself fromits point de repère, from what is supposed to be itssensory nucleus, and flutter about in free space without losing its sensory character?"All these difficulties disappear, however, if weassume that the sensory character of a fallaciousperception originates, not in one specific sensorystimulus, but in the general fact that the nerve-tractof the sense affected is at work; that instreamingcurrents from the periphery discharge the elementsof the "hallucinated centre in the same way as innormal perception. For just as we cannot say thatan act of perception is altered, by the introduction ofa new object into the field of vision, into a new act ofperception which is the sum of the former plus theperception of the object, no more can we speak of ahallucination-the hallucination of a white figure, forexample as though it were a separable part, capableof being subtracted from or added to some percept, -"a room with a white figure in it," for example. Inneither case can we refer a part of the perception toone particular sensory stimulus. The most that wecan say is that the sum of the sensory stimuli has a234 HALLUCINATIONScertain effect on the brain- state which obtains at themoment, and that the cerebral process which isbrought about by both these factors is accompaniedby an act of perception, which is either " objective,”i.e. , can be shared by all individuals alike, or “ subjective," ie., a fallacious perception.A view somewhat similar to the one presentedhere in physiological terms has been expressed byVolkmann von Volkmar¹ in terms of psychology.It is true he employs the old distinction betweenillusions and hallucinations, but he points nevertheless to an intermediate class of phenomena to whichit seems to me his " hallucinations " ought in the lastanalysis to be referred.' Not seldom, indeed, we encounter cases where between thesensation and the projection (or localisation) a reproductiveelement intervenes, so that whilst the sensation still furnishesthe occasion for the projection, this latter is eked out andcompleted by the reproductive image. The sensation endowsthe mental image with objective vividness, and the imageadopts the nameless sensation and gives it a name. Thesensation starts the projection, but the completed projectionrepresents the sum of sensation and image. This somewhatcomplex form of sensory deception resembles an illusion inhaving a sensory basis, and a hallucination in the projection ofa mental image. It may therefore be said to begin as anillusion and end as a hallucination, and may be regarded intwo ways, according as the sensory or the representativeelement predominates in the projection. In false perceptionsof the former sort the mental image insinuates itself unremarked into the sensation, which it modifies without destroying1 Volkmann von Volkmar, Lehrbuch d. Psychol. (4th ed . ) , ii . pp. 147et seq. I quote the passage, but without committing myself to theauthor's psychological standpoint.2 We are reminded here of the numerous examples cited by Helmholtzto prove that the position , surroundings, and form of an object all help to determine its colour.AND ILLUSIONS. 235its sensory character; in those of the latter sort the sensationflows side by side with the transforming process, and onlyserves to give the mental image the tone and appearance of asensation. It should be noted, moreover, that on the otherside true hallucinations are related to this class of sensorydeceptions because, though initiated by the reproductiveelement alone, a sensation never fails to accompany themsooner or later."In any case this theory seems best to cover all thefacts, since, while it refers the sensory character ofthehallucination to the participation ofthe sensory nerves,it explains the content of the hallucination by reference to the specific processes started by the sensorystimuli in connection with the cerebrostatic conditionpresent at the time. On this view Binet's point de repèreresolves itself into a purely suggestive factor, whichassists in two ways in the result. In the first place,by stimulating the element-groups (whose activityconditions the false- perception ) associated with itthrough suggestion or self-suggestion, and placingthem in the required state of heightened tension, itprepares the way for the hallucination; in the secondplace, it frequently serves to localise the phantasm.By including under his term each and every sensoryimpression which by acting as a mental cue may prepare the way for a hallucination we are really enlarging the scope of Binet's theory. Thus when a visualhallucination is suggested to a hypnotised subject, aclicking sound made with the finger-nails, or themuscular feeling corresponding to a certain movement of the head and eyes, or the touch of thehypnotist's hand, may serve as a point de repère.CHAPTER VIII.THE MANIFESTATIONS OF FALLACIOUS PERCEPTION.Various Degrees of Distinctness in Sensory Phantasms.—Percipient's Attitude-Sensory Character of the Phenomenanot disproved by a certain feeling of Subjectivity—Attempts to explain "Audible Thinking"--AutomaticArticulation -Spontaneous Cases -Experimental Evi- dence.IN the preceding chapter I have endeavoured to tracethe origin of the sensory quality in false perception. Ishall now proceed to consider its manifestations—¿.e. ,the various forms of externalisation of the hallucinatory percepts. If we consider first the distinctnessof the percept we shall find that this is not alwaysuniform. From the accounts we can clearly recognise a gradation. Sometimes the hallucinations seemto be scarcely distinguishable from vivid mentalimages; or, again, they may be externalised to sucha degree as to differ in no particular from the ordinary correct perception of plainly recognised objects.Between these two extremes, of course, there arecountless delicate gradations, of which the mostimportant must be discussed here.¹But first let me advert briefly to Wundt's remark1 Cf. for these discussions, Report, pp. 70-133 .2 Wundt, Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie. On the otherhand, Friedmann ( Ueber den Wahn) says of illusions that they aresomewhat wanting in plasticity.HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS. 237—an irrelevant one, certainly, according to my viewof the matter,-that complex visions are usuallydescribed as much more vague and evanescent incharacter than illusions (in Esquirol's sense) towhich the external point of attachment gives "anelement of fixity. " But the fact that detailed, fullydeveloped phantasms are often less clearly describedhas nothing to do with their distinctness in themselves, but must be accounted for by the confusion ofmind which obtains in many morbid conditions (e.g.,in fever delirium), as also in dreams and drowsy, halfasleep states. On the contrary, the greater distinctness of the more complex, and consequently rarer,2type of phantasm is indicated first by the circ*mstance that the English census gives more cases ofcomplex than of simple hallucination (showing thatthe former are better remembered), and secondly, bythe comparative frequency with which they affectseveral senses at once.³The gradations of distinctness above referred toyield different images according to the sense affected.1 Wundt, taking his stand on the ground of the centrifugal theory,does not pay sufficient attention to the psychological differences ofquality which exists between a mental image, however vivid, and allillusions of the senses-even if their perceptibility to the senses shouldonly arise from a higher degree of the accompanying physiologicalprocess.2 Rarer, because corresponding to the discharge of less extensivecomplexes of elements. In hypnotised persons, too, the hallucinationsare more rarely complex. A man who has the hallucination of a glassof red wine need not, in addition to visual hallucination, experiencealso the hallucination of the feelings corresponding to the weight,temperature, etc. , of the glass.3 If we reckon among simple phenomena those cases which, assensations of light, sound, touch, remain entirely dissociated, or inwhich the appearance, though realistically perceived, was not recognised as this or that concrete person , and the other reported cases238HALLUCINATIONSDegrees of Distinctness in Auditory, Painful, Olfactory, and Gustatory Hallucinations.—In auditorydelusions the lowest degree is represented by the"psychic " hallucinations of Baillarger. These are"soundless " internal voices, which seem to the subject to be addressed to him from outside; they arespoken of by the insane as " spiritual, " or as " soullanguage." By their soundlessness they are clearlydistinguished from more highly externalised acousmata, where the " sound element is moreless strongly marked, the voices sometimes seeming to whisper softly in the ear, or to be heard.faintly from a great distance, and in other casessounding loud and distinct. Hallucinatory ( non-""oras complex, the figures, according to the English tables, will stand as follows:-Simple Hallucinations.Total.Unknown Persons.Percentage of Simple Hallucinations.Indistinct Total.Hallucinations of one sense 1619 572 190 762 circa 47Hallucinations of more than one sense ... 251 49 28 77 circa 31So that, in hallucinations affecting more than one sense, we findcomplex phantasms to be 16 per cent. more numerous. This figure,however, is certainly a good deal too low, if we take into consideration that among the forgotten experiences the majority must havebeen simple, and affecting one sense only.1 Griesinger, op. cit. , p. 102; cf. Munich Collection, xxiv. a. LouiseHansen, at Lübeck in 1871 , sees the face of her mother, who was then dying at Hamburg. " I saw my mother in a grey cloud. The facelooked out of the cloud; she made a request of me, and I answered yes,and at the same moment cloud and face vanished . The request wasnot made in articulate language, and as we speak , but by an exchangeof thoughts, quite as clear and intelligible as though spoken aloud . "AND ILLUSIONS. 239vocal) noises, such as the ringing of the door- bell,steps in the hall, or in the room itself, knocks at thedoor, etc., seem, as a rule, to be indistinguishablein intensity from corresponding objective sounds.Sometimes, in dreams, the hallucinatory noises aresaid to be loud enough to awaken the sleeper. Insuch cases, however, we are often concerned, not withhallucinations, but with external noises heard withabnormal intensity in a state of dissociation.¹other cases it may be subjective sensations whichare hyperæsthetically perceived, for instance, certainattacks (not, of course, to be confounded with epileptic seizures), called by Weir Mitchell2 " sensoryshocks," which occur with alarming violence in neurasthenic and hysterical subjects, and after the excessiveuse of tobacco. On going to bed, -not on awaking,—and while going to sleep, a sudden shock is felt likea blow inside the head, in most cases accompanied bya sensation of sight, hearing, or smell so intense thatthese attacks, often preceded by an aura, are actuallydreaded by those subject to them. This observationseems to confirm Hoppe's view, that the frequentlyreported subjective sensation of a loud crash or jaris to be taken as a symptom of fatigue. Here aretwo examples:—•[Munich Collection, xvii. 2, and xvi. 1. ] "Fräulein R.Mei. an actress, reports: ' I thought I heard ( on January12th, 1888, in my apartments, between II A.M. and noon) aviolent blow on the surface of the table at which I was sitting.Fräulein M. R., my maid, who was in the room, also heard it. We were not touching the table, and were both greatlystartled by the sound. We examined the table, and found it1 See above, p. 117 , Note 1.2 " Some Disorders of Sleep, " in American Journal of MedicalScience, vol. c. , pp. 120-123.240 HALLUCINATIONSquite intact. I was knitting a stocking and studying my partin a play. My maid was busy with household work. I was inperfectly good health and wide awake, yet was profoundly disturbed by the occurrence. Between 4 and 5 P.M. I received atelegram, informing me that my mother, who had been ill forsome time, in fact, I had been expecting to hear of her deathfor the last three weeks, -had died on the same day, between II and 12. I had not seen her for two years. My mother'slast words were addressed to my brother, a lad of sixteen:' Give my love to my R , and always do as she tells you.""[Munich Collection, xvi. 1. ] “ At 31 Am . . . strasse, Munich,one day in February 1874, about 8 P.M. , I distinctly heard a handstrike several violent blows on a piece of furniture standing inthe room . My husband (who died in 1883 ) heard the same thing,and at once expressed his annoyance. The cook, too, who wasjust bringing in supper, heard the blows, and was frightened. Myhusband at once examined the piece of furniture, thinking thatit had cracked. Nothing could be discovered, and no crack orother cause of the peculiar noise was to be found elsewhere in the rooms. I at once assumed that an aunt of mine, then in adying state in the Pfalz, had in this way called our attention toherself. It turned out that this aunt had been thinking muchof us, especially in connection with testamentary dispositions.She died soon after, in March 1874.”That hallucinations of pain often attain great vividness may be observed by every dentist, in patientswho feel pain before the diseased tooth is eventouched. Moreover, the same thing is to be seen inhypnotism, where suggested burns and scalds causethe severest pain; nor are spontaneous cases, likethat of Mrs. Severn,2 so very rare. In this case thesubject awoke with the feeling of having been struckand wounded on the mouth, sat up, pressed her1 Cf. the case of Bernheim ( Études Nouvelles) , where the hallucinatorypain was confined to a particular spot and represented an ulcer in the stomach.2 Proceedings S. P.R. , vol. ii. p. 128.AND ILLUSIONS. - 241handkerchief to the spot, and was astonished to seeno blood.¹Hallucinations of smell also vary in degree, asmay easily be seen in post - hypnotic suggestion.Sometimes the subject is able to recognise thespecific odour distinctly; sometimes, again, thesensation is vague and blurred. The same is thecase with hallucinations of taste. Observationsmade during experiments in telepathy 2 show that,though the "transferred " sensation is frequently quiteclear and distinct, so that the percipient can reallyindicate what he tastes, in other cases the tasteexperienced is much less definite. " It burns, andthere is some sugar about it—just enough to soften it.It burns . . . you would feel it burning, I can tellyou,"-this is the degree of accuracy with which thesubject of a successful experiment in the telepathictransference of taste-sensations describes the taste ofground ginger, which the experimenter had in hismouth. Another time, when the agent had sugar inhis mouth, the percipient thus describes his subjectivetaste-sensations: " It's getting better. Sweetish taste-sweet-something like sugar."Degrees of Distinctness in Visual Hallucinations.—Gradations can best be recognised in cases of visual¹ [Munich Collection, xv. 2. ] " In the spring of 1889 I lay down onenight between 10 and 11. I had put out the light, but was stillawake; was not unwell; was just wondering how it was possiblefor some persons, whom I had seen, to fall so easily into a hypnoticcondition. All at once I felt as if a cold hand had struck me in theface, at the same time I was conscious of pain. I could even feelthe fingers. I was so much frightened that I did not venture to getup. "2 Cf. e.g. Proc. S.P.R. , vol. i. pp. 226, 276; 1883-84 , pp. 2-5, 8,18-22, 205 , 206.16242 HALLUCINATIONShallucination, with which, therefore, I shall deal rathermore in detail. The lowest degree of definite externalisation may be assumed, where the narrator uses suchexpressions as " I saw with my mind's eye," etc. Theappearance is not a mere mental image, but neitheris it perfectly externalised. The following narrativesof waking hallucinations may serve as examples:-Mr. Rawlinson writes:-" I was dressing one morning inDecember 1881, when a certain conviction came upon methat some one was in my dressing- room. On looking round,I saw no one; but then, instantaneously, in my mind's eye( I suppose), every feature of the face and form of my old friend,W. S― ," etc.¹"In the convalescence 2 from a malarial fever, during whichgreat hyperæsthesia of brain had obtained, but no hallucinationsor false perceptions, I was sitting alone in my room, looking outof the window. My thoughts were of indifferent trivialities;after a time my mind seemed to become absolutely vacant; myeyes felt fixed, the air seemed to grow white. I could seeobjects about me, but it was a terrible effort of will to perceiveanything. I then felt great and painful sense as of sympathywith some one suffering, who or where I did not know. After alittle time I knew with whom, but how I knew I cannot tell, forit seemed some time after this knowledge of personality that Isaw distinctly, in my brain, not before my eyes, a large, squareroom," . . . etc.The narrator then points out that the natural order of perception was reversed -the emotion came first, then the feelingthat a particular person was in question, and lastly, the vision orperception of the person.*¹ Proceedings S.P.R. , 1884 ( vol. ii. ) . p. 158. Cf. Phantasms ofthe Living, vol. i. p. 209.2 Proc. American S. P.R. , pp. 398 sqq. Cf. Phantasms of the Living,cases 21 , 27, 38, 56; vol. i. pp. 196, 209, 235, 255.Cf. the case of unconscious hallucination already mentioned ( p. 125 ),and the following observation of Janet's ( International Congress ofExperimental Psychology, Second Session, p. 165) . " Many patients were tormented by fixed ideas. Some had full consciousness of thoseideas, and openly stated what they were. Others could not wellAND ILLUSIONS. 243In the next stage of visualisation the percipientsees a face or figure projected or depicted, as it were,on some convenient surface-the image being thustruly externalised, but in an unreal and unsubstantialfashion, and in a bizarre relation to the real objectsamong which it appears. In this respect it might becompared to the " after image " of the sun, or of someobject that has been intently scrutinised through amicroscope, which we involuntarily import into ourview of the surrounding scene.¹ An excellent example of this kind of hallucination is the following:-"My mother had not been very well, but there was nothingalarming in her state. I was suffering from a bad cold, andwent to bed early one night, after leaving her in the drawingroom in excellent spirits and tolerably well. I slept unusuallywell, and when I awoke, the moon was shining through the.oldcasem*nt brightly into the room. The white curtains of my bedwere drawn to protect me from the draught which came throughthe large window, and on this curtain, as if depicted there, Isaw the figure of my mother-the face deadly pale, with blood ·flowing on the bed- clothes. For a moment I lay horror- strickenand unable to move or cry out; till , thinking it might be adream or a delusion, I raised myself up in bed and touched thecurtain. Still the appearance remained (although the curtainon which it was depicted moved to and fro when I touched it),as if reflected by a magic-lantern . In great terror I got up,". . . etc.2describe them, and did not clearly know what it was which tormented them. Others had no notion of those fixed ideas, which provoked onlystates of emotion and impulses in them. For example, a young manhad continual fear, without being able to explain what he was afraid of. It was sufficient to make him gaze on a shining surface for sometime for him to see the flames of a fire; and after listening to amonotonous sound for some time he became aware of other soundsthose of the bugle of the fire- brigade; in a word, that process revealedthe persistent idea of a fire which he had witnessed at some previousdate. "2 Ibid. ¹ Proc. S.P.R., vol. ii . p . 162.244 HALLUCINATIONSAnother example, perhaps somewhat more distinctlyexternalised, —although the image was certainly notso clearly defined as the other objects in the percipient's field of vision, -is to be found in the statementof Richard Searle."One afternoon, a few years ago, I was sitting in my chambersin the Temple, working at some papers. My desk is betweenthe fire- place and one of the windows, the window being twoor three yards on the left side of my chair, and looking out intothe Temple. Suddenly I became aware that I was looking atthe bottom window- pane, which was about on a level with myeyes, and there I saw the figure of the face and head of mywife, in a reclining position, with the eyes closed, and the facequite white and bloodless, as if she were dead. " ¹In connection with the above I may mention anexperiment of my own. A hypnotised subject, whilerealising the hallucinations suggested to her, saw theobjects as pictures hanging on the wall. She was struckby a want ofdistinctness in the pictures ( marine views),and explained it by the unfavourable character ofthe light, which was reflected from their surfaces. Inreality, of course, the percipient had eked out animperfect hallucination by imagining it to consistof pictures hung in a bad light.Baillarger describes this class of phantasms as seenthrough a veil of gauze, or some similar substance;but in the following case the incompleteness of theexternalisation is expressed a little differently. Thepercipient sees the phantasms quite distinctly, onlyhe sees other objects through them.[ Munich Collection, xxix. ] " I have seen and heard personswho spoke to me; they usually looked, I might say, transparent,like grey mist, yet they were wearing clothes like ours. ”1 Proc. S. P. R. , vol. ii. p . 163." 22 Compare also below (App. I. ) , Munich Collection, xxvii. p. 214.AND ILLUSIONS. 245In the statements accessible to me, I have butrarely met with this kind of phantasm, though it isa type to which the visions and spectres of pictorialart frequently conform, and which also occurs invarious forms in the religious traditions of remotepeoples; thus among the Omahas the name for spiritsis "Wa-na-he," i.e. , transparent bodies. However, thistype of partial externalisation sometimes crops up inexperimental cases. I need only mention the casewhere the hypnotised subject was required to seethe bearded experimenter as a young, handsome,and beardless man, as in fact he did, though at thesame time he could see the old, bearded face throughand behind the young one.¹Finally, coming to the highest development ofhallucination, we have the realistic bodily appearance combined with non- perception of that part ofthe field of view covered by the apparition.2 Indeed,in hypnotic cases it would seem that the vividly externalised phantasms produced by suggestion tend toappear more real than the actual objects or beings.which they represent when placed alongside them.³The explanation is surely obvious.Besides the differences in distinctness already dis1 Forel, Der Hypnotismus, 2nd ed. , p. 53.2 Forel's narrative, op. cit. , p. 65.3 Cf. for instance, Moll, Hypnotism, p. 168. "Y. being in thehypnotic trance, I say to him, ' When you awake, X. will be sittingon this chair; you will be wide awake and have all your senses aboutyou.' Y. , on awaking, in fact thinks he sees X. on the chair, converseswith this imaginary person, etc. I then point out to him the real X.with the words, ' Now, which is the real X.? You see one on the chair,the other you see standing here. ' Y. feels the chair and the real X. , inorder to convince himself which is X. and which empty air. Aftertrying for some time, he finally comes to the conclusion, He is sitting here on the chair, " "·246 HALLUCINATIONScussed, variations also occur in the colouring of thephantasms. Sometimes they are perceived only inoutline and with no colour, sometimes they resemblephotographs, showing light and shade only, othersagain resemble dark silhouettes. We are here reminded that among the Greeks and Romans the soulsof the dead were held to resemble the phantasms ofdreams, a conception probably arising out of thelatter; the Tasmanians used the same word for shadowand ghost; the Algonkin Indians call the human soulödatshuk-his shadow; in the Quiche language natulexpresses shadow, soul; the Arawak ueja meansshadow, picture, soul; the Abipones have only oneword (loakal) for picture, shadow, soul, and echo.¹Frequently, again, the images occur in their propercolours, sometimes fainter in tone, but sometimesextraordinarily bright and vivid. Gratiolet assertsthat hallucinations by night, in the dark, and withclosed eyes, as well as in the case of the blind,are mostly light in colouring, even fiery, but somewhat pale, and with a tendency to undulatorymotion; that in the dusk, or with defective illumination, white figures are very frequently seen, appearingto occupy positions in space at a measurable distance,¹ Radestock, Traum und Schlaf, p. 11 .2 Cf. A. v. Vay, Visionen im Wasserglase; Griesinger, op. cit. , p.91; v. Schrenck- Notzing , Die Bedeutung narcotischer Mittel, p. 70." The glowing colours of a sea- piece suggested to him by me whilsthe was in a state of coma induced by haschisch, were remembered by Herr U. in all their vividness, and induced him to make use of theidea in a picture, especially the colouring, which otherwise ( i.c. , in awaking condition) was never perceived with the same intensity. " Cf.Radestock, op. cit. , p. 148; also Sander, " Sinnestäuschungen , " Real- Encyklopædie, xviii . p. 326; Brach, "Geschichte eines PhantasmaVisionis," Med. Zeit. v. Ver. f. H. in Pr. ( 1837, No. 5 ); Smithsonian Institute, ii. p. 9.AND ILLUSIONS. 247and not moving to and fro; and that those seen infull daylight most nearly resemble real objects.¹ Sucha general statement as this, however, can scarcely beregarded as borne out by experience.2It would also be a mistake to assume that all hallucinations will fit exactly into the above scheme.Thus there are phantasms which in the course of theirdevelopment pass through different stages of definiteness, growing from vagueness to comparative distinctness, or, on the contrary, gradually fading away.[Munich Collection, x. 13. ] " In April 1886, between 4 and5 A.M., upon awaking, I saw my sister, who had died at the ageof nine, standing before my bed. She was dressed in hershroud, and had a wreath on her head. She approached mybed. At first I saw dim, nebulous outlines, out of which thefigure was developed as it approached me. It was just dawning; her features looked deathly pale, as they had done in thecoffin. I screamed aloud. The not yet fully developed figurevanished before my eyes. A sister sleeping in the same roomwas not awakened by my scream, and did not share my impressions. I had been greatly excited the day before, butbelieve that I was fully awake at the time. ""In the spring of 1889 I saw, at night, as I was lying awakein bed, a person nearly connected with me approach my bed.The course of the vision was as before. The face was distortedand ghost-like. Mythoughts had been much occupied with thisperson during the past few days. ”Von Krafft-Ebing has noted that, in insanity, hallucinations often appear more dimly and indistinctly21 Griesinger, op. cit. , p. 99.J. Mourly Vold ( " Expérience sur les rêves, " Revue de l'Hypnotisme, Jan. 1896) found " that the colours seen before falling asleep,particularly black and white, tend to enter into dreams, or to evoke in dreams their complementary colours. In some cases, " he adds, " itseems as though it were the contrast between darkness and the intenselight which takes effect in the dream. "LIBRARY3 Sinnesdelirien, p. 37.REESEOF THEUNIVERSITYOF CALIFORNIA248 HALLUCINATIONSin the first period, afterwards become clearer, andgradually cease during the period of convalescence." 1While, on the one hand, there are some observations which seem to indicate (see above, p. 128, Note3, and p. 129, Note 4) that hallucinations may leaveafter-images, others, again, might lead us to underratethe distinctness possessed by hallucinatory percepts.In some hypnotic experiments, for instance, it hasbeen observed¹ that, " when subjects are asked totrace their hallucinations with a pencil, or even todescribe them minutely, they often show a vagueness and uncertainty which their previous expressionsand actions would hardly have led one to expect. "I do not think that we should be induced by suchobservations to assume that in these cases there ismere mental vision, and deny the sensory characterof the phenomenon. Perhaps the whole assumptionand inference is based on a trace of the eccentricprojection theory," which I have already given myreasons for rejecting. However, I shall insist nofurther on this for the present; nor shall I do morethan call attention very briefly to the facts that anunpractised draughtsman finds sufficient difficultyeven in tracing an image projected by the cameralucida on a sheet of paper, and that many peopleindicate quite a wrong position for the image of ahouse, for instance, reflected on the surface of apond; or, at any rate, cannot point out the right onewithout stopping to consider. I only wish to adducetwo principal circ*mstances in explanation. In thefirst place, the sub-consciousness that the objectsperceived by hallucination are not real, and theuncertainty arising from the discord between surface1 Proceedings ofthe American S.P.R. , p. 98.AND ILLUSIONS. 249consciousness and sub-consciousness; secondly, andmore especially, the dream-like condition of the percipient.¹Attitude ofthe Percipient with regard to the Hallucinatory Perception. —The attitude of the percipienttowards the hallucination depends, in the first instance,as we shall see, on his belief in its reality. But evenwhere this belief exists, its manifestations differconsiderably. Sometimes the percipient behavesas would be required by circ*mstances, supposinghim to be in the presence of an objective reality;in other cases he fails to do so. This circ*mstancehas been adduced as a distinctive symptom of hallucination as opposed to pseudo- hallucination ( ¿.e., avivid image of the imagination which yet lacks thefeeling of sensory affection, and therefore is a mentalimage and not a true hallucination). However, thisdoes not seem to me correct. That the conditionof the hallucinant is frequently that of a man in aprofound dream sufficiently explains the differencebetween his behaviour at such times and when awake.This is the explanation given by Krafft- Ebing for thecirc*mstance that a person hypnotised by him, whileallowing herself to be carried back, by suggestion, toher childhood, found no difficulty whatever in believing the season to be winter, though she couldsee the green leaves on the trees. Even when herattention was called to this point, she showed nosurprise, but found an explanation in harmony withthe apathetic condition of her mind at the momentshe thought she must be in a hothouse.²1 Compare J. Philippe, " Sur les images mentales," Third International Congress for Psychology, p. 235; also Forel's remarks, p. 237.2 Krafft-Ebing, Hypnotische Experimente, p. 28.250 HALLUCINATIONSAn example given by Kandinsky may serve brieflyto illustrate my point-viz. , that the experience maybe a genuine hallucination although the percipientdoes not behave towards the apparition exactly as hewould do with regard to the objective reality. Thisauthor reports the case of a person who perceivedthe hallucinatory figure of a lion (or, according toKandinsky, " vividly imagined " a lion), and yetmanifested no particular excitement, apprehension,or terror. Now, it is true that if the man in questionhad met in the street a lion escaped from somemenagerie, he would have been seized by the aboveemotions. However, it is not the mere sight of thelion which would have excited his apprehension insuch a case, but the same sight in conjunction withcertain definite though chiefly sub- conscious associations. The sight of a lion in a menagerie will nolonger affect us in the same way, even though acertain sense of uneasiness, oppression, and suspensemay perhaps be produced by a secret misgiving as tothe strength of the grating securing the cage. If, onthe other hand, we see a lion, having finished hismeal, lying drowsily behind the stout iron bars ofhis abode in the Zoological Gardens, there can nolonger be any question of such a feeling; on thecontrary, the sight is productive of a high degreeof pleasure to the animal-painter.¹ The sight of alion in a picture is certainly also a perception bymeans of the senses, but it does not produce a1 It is the hero's failure to take into account the different effectsproduced by impressions on the senses under different circ*mstancesand with other associations, which gives rise to the comic situation inDaudet's " Tartarin de Tarascon , " where Tartarin, while preparing togo lion-hunting in Algeria, takes nightly walks in the neighbourhoodof a menagerie, in order to accustom himself to the roaring of the lions.AND ILLUSIONS. 251feeling of apprehension. If, in the case quoted byKandinsky, the percipient was not terrified or excitedby the apparition of a lion, this means no more thanthat, in consequence of the condition of the percipient'sbrain at that particular moment, the connection withthe complex of elements usually associated with theidea of a lion roaming about at liberty did not andcould not take place. The perception was confinedto an isolated group of elements, corresponding tothe ideas of heraldry, pictorial art, zoological studies,etc. For the sake of comparison, I here cite anexperiment, in which the hallucination of a snake atfirst produced no corresponding emotion, but, lateron, when the cognate associations had been calledto mind, elicited the expression of extreme fear. Ido not think that the first case is to be explained bycalling the image a merely mental one, but that ahallucination of the senses is to be assumed in bothcases alike.¹"Herr A., a medical student, was hypnotised by me. Nosimilar experiment had ever been tried on him before. Thesuggested hallucination of the staff of Æsculapius was realised,but the staff declared to be of extraordinary size. The snake'slife-like appearance was first pointed out to A.; afterwards,when it was suggested to him as living, it coiled itself off thestaff, wriggled about the room and approached A. , who, smilingand following its movements with his eyes, asked me, ' Do youalways keep this snake in your room?' I interrupted the sceneby exclaiming, ' Look out, it's a rattlesnake.' A. immediatelysprang aside, asked anxiously if the poison-fangs had been extracted, and, on receiving a negative answer, fled, with everysymptom of fear and confusion, from one corner of the room toanother, hid behind chairs, and was so terrified that it became¹ Cf. William James, Principles of Psychology, ii . pp. 442 sqq.;Dewey, " Theory of the Emotions, " Psychological Review, ii . pp ..13 sqq.252 HALLUCINATIONSnecessary to put an end to the scene by means of soothingsuggestions."And if the behaviour of hallucinated persons cannot be taken as a test, no more can the presence of acertain feeling of subjectivity on their part disprovethe sensory character of the experience. The subjectof a genuine hallucination may be aware that his ownimagination has furnished the material for the vision.He is able to indicate the subjective character of thehallucination, but thinks it real, nevertheless, ¹ or, atany rate, cannot escape from it. Such a case occurswhen patients state that their own thoughts, “ thesound-images of their thoughts are words, with allthe peculiarities of self- uttered words, pale images ofwords uttered by themselves."2 Griesinger quotes fromEsquirol the answer of a melancholic patient.³ Hisattention being called to the erroneous character ofhis hallucinations of hearing, he remarked, in themidst of a conversation, " Do you ever think? ""Certainly." " Very good-you think to yourself, andI think out loud." Many patients believe themselvesto think so loud that other people can hear theirthoughts and are annoyed thereby; or they assumethat their apartments are so constructed acousticallyas to strengthen the sound, not only of spoken words,but even of unspoken thoughts (Grashey).*1 Griesinger, op. cit. , p. 94.42 Grashey, "Ueber Hallucinationen , " Münch. Med. Wochenschrift( 1893) , p. 154.3 Griesinger, op. cit. , p. 91; cf. Leuret, Gazette Médicale de Paris( 1834, No. 10) . The latter mentions a patient who said of his voices," C'est un travail qui se fait dans ma tête. "4 Such hallucinations not infrequently play a considerable part inliterature, especially in descriptions of the tortures of remorse, and the .like. An example of such a description is to be found in GerhardAND ILLUSIONS. 253Sometimes the feeling of subjectivity is feebler.The patient knows that the thoughts are his own,but they seem to be uttered by other voices. Hestill feels himself to some extent an active agent,but at the same time his receptivity is much increased. Such patients complain of their thoughtsbeing uttered aloud by other people. When reading,they think some one is reading the same book aloudat the same time; and when writing a letter, theycomplain that a strange voice is dictating the thoughtsto them.In another variety of auditory hallucinations, thefeeling of subjective origin becomes still more rudimentary. The contents of the hallucination are quitealien to the patient's mind, but a trace of the feelingremains; they hear their own thoughts, but do notrecognise them as their own, considering them as"made " thoughts suggested to them by God or thedevil, or some human being.¹We must not reckon in this category, however,Hauptmann's Der Apostel, pp. 79, 80. " He strode along, with afeeling as if he were walking dry-shod over water. So great andawful he seemed in his own eyes that he had to admonish himself tohumility. And as he did so, he could not help remembering Christ'sentry into Jerusalem, and then the words, ' Behold, thy king comethunto thee in meekness. For a time, he still felt the girl's looks following him. For some reason or other he took care to walk exactly in the middle of the road. . . At the same time, as if controlled by someforce outside himself, he kept repeating again and again: ' Behold, thyking cometh unto thee in meekness. ' Children's voices sang these words.They lay still unformed between his tongue and his palate, but thesound of his breath seemed to become articulate, and in it he heardthem.•In addition to many other cases, Kandinsky reports such hallucinations as experienced by himself. He thought them too absurd tohave originated in his own mind, and took them as " induced " by someof his fellow-patients.254 HALLUCINATIONSa certain not uncommon type of dream where thedreamer is haunted by the feeling that whateverhappens is not actually true-that it is only a dream.He sees other people, perhaps even himself, performing certain actions; he hears conversation, but all thetime the conviction that he is only dreaming persistsin his mind. This is also manifested in other wayse.g. , the dreamer dreams that after doing somethingor other he lies down tired, goes to sleep, and dreams.Sometimes this dream within a dream is so distinctand complete that the action interrupted by it iscontinued from the point at which it was broken off.It is also sometimes reported of sick people andhypnotised subjects that, along with the hallucination, from which they cannot escape, they have theconsciousness that it was only a delusion of thesenses. Or, again, the percipient may succeed incorrecting the hallucination, but it returns the nextmoment.¹¹ Agood example of this, and also of the effect of points de repèrein suggesting the same delusion over and over again, is offered in thecase referred to by Rosenbach ( Centralblattfür Nervenheilkunde, April1 , 1886) . X, of a healthy family, had no further trouble to complainof than periodic digestive disturbances, followed by sleeplessness. Ex- amination showed a normal state of the organic functions, except fora moderate degree of hereditary myopia. He was able to undergowithout difficulty the severe mental labour connected with his profession. But for the last few years he has noticed that, after working,he seems when in the street to meet none but persons known to him.It is only after bowing to them that he finds himself mistaken. Sometimes he sees people of whom he has not even thought for years; yet he is not one of those who are always on the look-out for resemblances.The details of the process are as follows: On the first glance he sees aperson of his acquaintance standing before him, but closer examination soon convinces him that he has made a mistake. Yet, in spite ofthis, the hallucination is caused anew by another look at the face, a fewmoments later, though immediately corrected by the recollection of theprevious discovery.AND ILLUSIONS. 255SOIn these last- named cases it is not the feeling ofsubjectivity with which we are concerned, but thebelief in the objectivity of the hallucination. Apatient may suffer from the utterance of his own.thoughts, as above described, but need not thereforebe in any doubt as to the reality of the voices.accompanying his thoughts. Moreover, even ifthe belief in the reality of the appearance or voicedoes not necessarily accompany the hallucination, yetit is certain that the latter is in most casesaccompanied. It cannot be the quality of the psychicoccurrences which distinguishes the hallucinationfrom an objective perception. In some cases onlyits content may, by the impossibility of reconcilingit with other experience, awaken doubts. Yet,as all our knowledge comes to us through thesenses, as it is they which, every moment, enable usto receive new impressions, and as in ordinary lifewe find them trustworthy witnesses, we need verystrong reasons to persuade us to examine into theobjectivity of any perception.¹ If a lady passingalong the corridor in a hotel sees the apparitionof a man standing at the open door of the lift,there is no occasion for her to inquire whether theappearance corresponds to an objective reality anymore than there is in the case of a lady who hearsthe door-bell ring without knowing that no one hastouched it. Thus it often happens that the percipientfinds himself repeatedly deluded by hallucinationsbefore it occurs to him to doubt the reality of theappearances while they last. When he has once dis1 Compare the way in which children, or primitive peoples, arecompletely at the mercy of sense - impressions-subjective as well asobjective.256 HALLUCINATIONScovered their true character, however, his blind beliefin the evidence of his senses is thoroughly shaken.¹Or, again, the content ofthe hallucination may awakendoubt and misgivings. Theapparition of a dead person,for instance, would naturally suggest the visionary character ofthe experience. Thirdly, the doubt may arisefrom the contradiction between the hallucination andthe sub- consciousness of its unreality. The hallucinantis in doubt; when asked what is the matter, he does notreply, not being sure whether "his senses have deceivedhim."2 Or, in many cases, he asks, " Am I asleepor awake?" Others are induced by their uncertaintyto test the matter. Thus Holland relates that apatient, having discovered that he was able to suggestwords to the voices at pleasure, succeeded in recognising his auditory hallucinations as such. A ladysaw the apparition of her sister, and thought, "If thisis really she, I ought to see her reflected image in themirror." A young man, who continually heard histhoughts uttered aloud, went into an open field, withno house or tree in the neighbourhood. He couldsee no one but a labourer ploughing at a greatdistance. When, even here, he heard his thoughtsspoken so loudly that they could not possibly beuttered by the voice of the distant ploughman, hebecame convinced that what he heard was a hallucination.Attempts to Explain " Audible Thinking."-Manyattempts have been made to explain these hallucinations of voices uttering the percipient's own1 The visions of Nicolai are well known in this connection.2 Statement of Mrs. Townsend in Proc. S.P.R. , vol. iii. p. 75.3 Statement of Ch. Jupp, ibid. , p . 88.4 Sir Henry Holland, Chapters on Mental Physiology ( 2nd edit. ) ,P. 52.AND ILLUSIONS. 257thoughts-e.g. , by assuming a duplex action of thecerebral hemispheres.¹ Cramer's explanation hasalready been given (cf. page 183) . Grashey 2 takesquite a different view of the matter.He finds that the difference between the two processes corresponding respectively to sensory perception and ideation is not, as I think, in kind, butconsists, firstly, in the different degree of intensity, and,secondly, in the feeling of the connection between.our memory-images and the earlier memory- imageswhich called them forth; in the connection of ourpresent thought with the chain of our thoughts, withits predecessors, which gave birth to it. ( Physiologically, the process of association corresponds to thisfeeling. ) An excitation proceeding neither from theperipheral organs nor through the associationchannels of the cerebral cortex, he calls a hallucinatory excitation; every sensation produced bysuch excitation a hallucinatory sensation, and everyperception composed of hallucinatory sensations acomplete hallucination; he considers as illusionsall perceptions arising out of hallucinatory sensations combined with sensations coming from theperipheral sense- organs. If the two above- mentionedcriteria are lost to the consciousness (as, e.g. , in sleep)no genuine hallucination arises, but, e.g., a hypnagogicfallacy of judgment. The surprisingly clear anddefinite form assumed by the memory- pictures ofobjects looked at for some hours is caused, first,by a state of irritation in the corresponding parts1 See above, pp. 180-184. 2 Op. cit.3 Compare with this view the criticism at the end of Chapter IV. ,supra.17258 HALLUCINATIONSof the cerebral cortex, and secondly by the factthat the attention, being now diverted from thissensory region, is less directed to the processes ofassociation which call forth the vivid memorypicture. If the many accustomed stimuli of averageintensity are shut out from any one sense it isonly reached by sensations of slight intensity, sothat the memory-images assume a surprising distinctness. If patients, even without the accompanimentof unusual external quiet, distinctly hear their ownthoughts (" imperfect hallucinations," since the excitation takes place through the association - channels,although with abnormal intensity), there is a morbidly intensified irritability of the parts of the cortexin question. If, on the contrary, the thoughts heardare those of other people, we must assume more orless intense pathological processes at the pointswhere the memory- images of these processes arestored up.More correct than this view is probably the onerepresented by Hoppe (among others), who distinguishes:-1. Subjective noises from the neighbourhood of the auditorynerves, and of the ear, and in the head-i.e. , all sounds heardwhich do not immediately announce themselves as specifically belonging to the ends of the auditory nerves. These arecaused, indeed, by an irritation of the auditory nerve, but asecondary irritation, or they may in other cases arise from aprimary irritation of the auditory fibres not manifesting thespecial form of excitation required for the production of articulate sounds. With these may be grouped all noises in thehead conducted through the bony parts to the ear, or reachingthe auditory centre by centripetal channels. 2. The peripheral1 Hoppe, Erklärung der Sinnestäuschungen, p. 236.AND ILLUSIONS. 259― -SOawakening of the impressions stamped on the ends of theauditory nerve in the ear (after-images-permanent images).3. The phenomena with which we are now concernedcalled auditory hallucinations, which, however, consist merelyin the unnoticed articulation of one's own thoughts, whichbecomes audible, and takes the form of an auditory hallucination without determinable origin.¹All thinking—or, at least, all verbal thinking—isconnected with centrifugal motor innervation of themuscles which regulate the articulation of speech, aswell as ofother (mimetic) groups ofmuscles. The slightmovements resulting herefrom do not usually reach ourconsciousness; but it is possible, by observing one's self,to feel the movements in the vocal apparatus.2 If theinnervation is strong enough, then it becomes a moreor less audible speaking. Now, if it were possible toassume that, while the sounds themselves are receivedby the ear, the articulation which takes place makesno impression on the consciousness, the result wouldbe an auditory perception, whose production by our1 Ibid. , p. 248....2 Klinke, " Ueber das Symptom des Gedankenlautwerdens, " Arch.f. Psych. , xxvi . p. 155. " Unprofessional persons, who have neverheard of motor sensations . . . when verbally thinking, feel no motorsensations in the articulatory apparatus; at least , after questioning asuccession of individuals, I could never succeed in ascertaining anything of the sort. Only after the explanation had been given to them,and the motor sensation pointed out, one or another thinks he candetect such impulses in the organs of speech, or even, as in the case ofone of my patients, in the forehead, or the tip of the nose. " (For thistransference of sensation cf. examples given on the following page. )Id. , p. 198. ' One can, indeed (especially after a detailed study ofStricker's proofs that, when a person is thinking in words, slight motorimpulses are continually imparted to the organs of speech) , believe thatone really feels certain slight sensations in the tongue, the mouth, andthe epiglottis. . . .'"""260 HALLUCINATIONSselves would remain unknown to us, and whose originwe should be unable to trace. There would result, then,either the above-mentioned phenomenon of audiblethinking, or the thing heard being referred to a realor fancied personality-the other forms of the delusiondescribed above would naturally follow. If the thingheard is associated with pressure on the præcordialregion, unpleasant sensations in the abdomen, painsin the leg, etc., the transference of the voice-asstated in various narratives-to the chest, the toes,the abdominal region, etc. , would follow as a naturalconsequence.¹ ( Cf. supra, p. 175, note 1. )This being assumed as a preliminary, it is, of course,unnecessary that the patient should articulate aloud,or so that the articulation should be observed in anyway by the persons present. A fusion of what issoftly articulated, or of the sound produced by thecurrent of breath influenced by articulation, withany coincidental subjective noises, or its perceptionduring a possible hyperæsthesia of the auditory nerve,would easily explain the perception of "spokenwords " even with very faint and perhaps scarcelyperceptible articulation.2¹ Klinke, loc. cit. ( pp. 155 sqq. ) , has stated the objections to the viewthat, in every case of verbal thought , slight motor processes must takeplace in the vocal apparatus. Apart from the weakness ofthe objections,the possibility of thought without such motor processes in the vocalmuscles makes no difference whatever as far as the hypothesis hereadopted is concerned, the point being that such movements usually dotake place. If they are absent in some particular cases, the result is only that there is no double thinking. """2 Persons suffering from affections of the ear frequently state thattheir own voices sound louder to them. Gruber, " Ueber Autophonieund Tympanophonie, " Monatsschrift für Ohrenheilkunde, ii . 8 ( 1868) .Cf. Klinke, loc. cit. , p. 153. " I will now briefly touch upon theAND ILLUSIONS. 261The most important question, however, is whetherwe are justified in assuming that the movements ofarticulation could escape the consciousness.Such anassumption will scarcely seem a rash one, consideringthe number of analogous cases observed in othermuscular groups. I have already called attentionto the slight, rapid movements of the eyes, of whichthe patient is quite unconscious, in cases of vertigo.The result of these unconscious eye-movements isidentical with what I am assuming to occur inautomatic articulation. We see movement, butare not aware that it is our eyes that moveand therefore transfer the movement to surroundingobjects which appear to revolve round us.Automatic writing, in which the hand writes, whilethe consciousness is unaware of the action, is anotherexample of the same thing. Here, too, the motorimpulses set the muscular apparatus in motion,while our upper consciousness knows nothing of theaction except through the result, afterwards lookedon with incredulity by the writer, who denies havingwritten the words, and either thinks he has beenmade a fool of, or attributes the writing to spirits(mediumistic writing).The complete correspondence between automaticwriting and automatic articulation will be best shownby the following parallel table:-phenomenon of heightened voice- innervation cited by Kandinsky (cf.Cramer, op. cit. , pp. 16, 17) . After subcutaneous injection of onemilligram of hyoscine, I felt-in addition to visual hallucinations andillusions, and atactic phenomena-when I spoke that my own wordssounded extremely loud. They seemed to me to come from abovefrom a point directly over the vertex and several times I wasuncertain whether the words I heard did not come from outsidei.e. , from another person. "·262 HALLUCINATIONSRESULTS.In automatic action ofthemuscular writing-apparatus.1. Up and down strokeswithoutrecognisable meaning.12. The hand writes thesame word or sentence overand over again. ( Occurrenceof mirror- writing, anagrams,etc.)3. The hand writes sentences, often long and complicated, belonging to the subliminal consciousness.4. The hand writes what theperson is consciously thinking;but the person does not consciously or intentionally influence the writing.In automatic action ofthevocal organs.I. Inarticulate sounds without recognisable meaning;when vigorously uttered, objectively perceptible as vociferation, or ecstatic " speakingwith tongues "; when theutterance is feeble, subjectiveperception of "confused noise,"-" many voices talking at thesame time."2. Subjective perception:The same word or sentenceheard over and over again,e.g., "Onkel August,” “hepp,hepp," " Do not eat," " Killyour child," or strange words,as, "Lolch-graf," etc.3. Subjective perception:Hearing of strange voices:"Thoughts are made for me. "(This case sometimesdevelopsout of the former).³ Objective perception: somnambulistic prophecy.4. Subjective perception:Audible thinking, doublethinking. Objective perception: attacks of chattering;Friedreich's co-ordinatedmemory-spasms.1 Cf. the series of articles by F. W. H. Myers in Proc. S.P. R.2 Compare " A Case of Psychic Automatism, including Speakingwith Tongues," by Albert Le Baron, communicated by William James,Proceed. S. P.R. , vol. xii . pp. 277 et seq.3 Ball, Maladies mentales, p. 67. Also the hallucinatory " runningcommentary" on conscious thoughts mentioned, e.g. , by Ziehen,Psychiatrie.AND ILLUSIONS. 2635. The hand writes automatically, but the conscioustrain of thought on the partof the subject influences thecharacter of the communication.5. The patient is able todirect the voices at pleasure.The foregoing view is not only theoretically tenable,but finds further support in medical observations onhallucinated patients. Thus Moreau¹ observed aninsane patient who, when under the influence of hallucinations, moved his lips, and therefore was nodoubt softly uttering the words which he heard fromimaginary voices.Michel2 reports the remark of a patient that hisauditory hallucinations-the words which forced themselves upon him-accumulated in his mouth, so thathis saliva was impregnated with them. Hoppe³cites the case of a lunatic with persecution- mania,whose auditory hallucinations (consisting of abusivelanguage) were accompanied by a twitching in hishead, and who also declared that he perceived agentle plucking in his mouth, and especially in theepiglottic region. With this may be comparedHoppe's observations on himself: —¹" I was suffering from a slight inflammation of the leftear, and was lying in bed, on my left side, prepared to go tosleep. In consequence of the pressure and the pulsation Iheard the secretion in the left ear moving with a slight crepitation. It occurred to me to imitate this noise articulately; Itherefore gave the necessary impulse to the articulatory musclesand very soon my imitative articulatory motions were pro1 Moreau (de Tours) , Du Haschisch, etc.2 Michel, Gazette des hôpitaux ( 1864); vide supra, p. 28, Note 1.3 Op. cit. , p. 217.4 Op. cit. , p. 229.264 HALLUCINATIONSduced with extreme rapidity, while I heard them in my ear,andfelt them in my mouth."We may also cite in this connection the note ofKandinsky's already made use of by Hoppe. Kandinsky, having played on the zither before going tosleep, suddenly, when in bed, heard the beginningof the piece which he had been playing. After thisthe tones followed one another with increasingrapidity until the tune died away.¹Langwieser's patient² at first had auditory hallucinations, to which were gradually added those ofsmell, sight, etc. In eating, he could not perceivethe deglutition of the food, and never felt that he hadhad enough. Every morsel turned round of itself inhis mouth and was snatched aside; what he drankseemed to be lost under his tongue, and not swallowed. His tongue felt as though it hung by thirtyor forty fine threads, which were continually beingpulled, so that it moved constantly of itself. Inspeaking, he felt as if the words were being draggedout of his mouth.3According to Séglas, a patient said, " When Ithink, I cannot help speaking, or I should choke.Even if I do not speak aloud, if you watch carefully you can always see my lips moving; but thisCf. the way in which one is haunted by tunes, especially dancetunes. This, too, usually arises from an automatic and continuedproduction of the particular rhythm. In most cases it is the rhythmalone which possesses the sensory quality, though the imagination fillsit in with the remembered tones of voice or instrument.2 66 Langwieser, Exquisiter Fall von Hallucinationen, " Spit. Zeit. ,1863 , Nos. 46-48."L'hallucination dans ses rapports avec la function du langage;les hallucinations psychom*otrices, " Progrès médical, 16e année 2, série viii. , Nos. 33, 34.AND ILLUSIONS. 265is still more the case when I hear voices out ofmy belly." Further material in abundance is to befound among the cases discussed in the article ofKlinke's already cited. In one patient frequentmovements of the lips were noticed, as though hewere talking to himself; another denied that he wasforced to repeat what he heard, but felt his tonguebecoming heavy, etc.One of the best cases is that recorded by Sir H. Holland( 1840), and afterwards rescued from oblivion by Pick.¹ A managed 85, physically weak, but with his mental faculties quiteunimpaired, who had never suffered from any brain affection ,had a fall in which he struck his forehead, causing a swelling.After this he could no longer remember the names of hisservants, or find the right words; all speech sounded to himunintelligible and indefinite. These symptoms ceased after twodays. Some days later he went out for a drive. Immediately he was aware of voices, but these voices were as ataxic andaphasic as the patient himself had previously been. On hisreturn from the drive, when reading, the symptom of audiblethinking occurred, the voice sometimes being in advance ofwhat he was reading, but never farther than his eye could reach.In explanation of this case one might assume thatthe functional derangement had not quite passedaway, that the shaking during the drive again threwthe vocal mechanism out of order; but that thisdisturbance was too slight to override the strongimpulses on which speech is based, although able tomake itself felt in the wider innervation accompanying the act of thinking. This would furnish avery simple explanation of the conversations betweenhallucinated patients and their ghostly counsellorsor persecutors. V. Parant mentions the case of a1 Prager medicalische Wochenschrift, 1883 , No. 44.266 HALLUCINATIONS""female inmate of a lunatic asylum, who, whenevershe fancied herself threatened, or in any trouble ordifficulty, went to some fixed place, and therereceived, from imaginary persons, advice whichalways corresponded with her wishes.¹ Another wasin the habit of playing at " odd or even with anapparition, who always obligingly guessed the wrongnumbers. The phantom was less complaisant in thecase of a woman who was constantly studying alaw-book, and in her imaginary disputes was alwaysdefeated by the arguments of her opponent.2Just as external rhythmic sounds, repeated for aconsiderable period of time, like the rumbling of atrain, the sound of breathing, etc., can so influence us,that a tune, or a sentence pronounced rhythmically,forces itself on us in continual repetition, so the¹ Ann. méd. -psych. , 6th series, vol. vii. p. 379; Ball, Maladiesmentales, p. 98. Other cases have been previously mentioned.2 This case may perhaps be compared with one of those dreams inwhich, e.g. , the dreamer imagines that he is in school and is asked aquestion by the master which he cannot answer. He finds himself in thegreatest embarrassment; and the master asks the next pupil, who then gives the correct answer. The explanation of this esprit d'escalierwhich sometimes occurs in dreams is usually this: that the state ofexcitement does not allow the idea which is pressing forward to reachthe consciousness, but that the attention is entirely devoted to theseeking, to the exclusion of the finding. It is only when the tensionis relaxed that the thing sought for penetrates into the consciousness.Yet how many of these so- called " correct answers are really correct,and do not rather consist in an entirely meaningless vocal motion,which, through the emphasis it receives from the feelings, producesthe impression of having been correct? Compare with this, on theother hand, the following from Ziehen's Psychiatrie ( p. 27): —“ Iknow a patient who regularly carried on the study of Italian; whenhe repeated lists of words to himself, it sometimes happened that he did not know a word, or said it wrongly, and the voice told him the right word."""AND ILLUSIONS. 267same is the case with intra-aural sounds, pulsations,etc. In this connection a narrative of C. Fürer's¹is of interest. Without being acquainted with theform of auditory hallucinations here to be described, Fürer, when still suffering from an imperfectly healed perforation of the left tympanum,made on himself an experiment in the inhalationof ether. Hereupon there set in, among othersymptoms, a rushing in the ears, chiefly localisedon the left side, then strong hyperacousia, followed by steadily increasing pulsations in the leftear. These pulsations produced the mechanicalrepetition of the words " tom tom s s, tom tom s s,"in the form of obstinately recurring mental images(ie. , softly articulated by himself), which increased indistinctness, till it assumed the character of a hallucination. He thought he could distinctly hear a personstanding on his left, shouting these words to him,marking the rhythm and keeping time with thepulsations in his ear.In connection with this observation on himself, hecites three other cases, in which the patients (acutehallucinatory insanity, imbecility, maniacal period ofcircular insanity) were subject to auditory hallucinations of a rhythmic character. In two of these casesan examination of the ears was instituted. It wasfound that, in the one, chronic changes of connectivetissue had taken place over circ*mscribed areas inboth tympana-a condition frequently accompanied bynoises in the ears. The second patient was found to1 C. Fürer, " Ueber das Zustandekommen von Gehörstäuschungen, "Centralblatt für Nervenheilkunde u. Psychiatrie, New Series, v. , Feb.1894. These rhythmic auditory hallucinations are frequently to befound in published reports of cases.268 HALLUCINATIONSbe suffering from chronic affections-on one side, ofthe middle ear, on the other, of the labyrinth.I am inclined to find further confirmation ofthe hypothesis just stated, in the occurrence ofcertain objective phenomena akin to this type ofhallucination - viz. , spasmodic attacks of chattering, Friedreich's co-ordinated memory-spasms, etc.While the latter are, in fact, nothing else butthe carrying out of " continued " movements,¹ theformer correspond throughout to " audible thinking. " Kandinsky describes such a case, in which thepatient, fearing to betray his thoughts by his rapid ,mechanical chattering (resembling the noise of analarum- clock), ran into the water- closet till the attackhad passed away.A fact specially pointed out by Burckhardt2 in hisinteresting work seems to me not without importance.Starting with the idea that irritation of the corticalarea, whose destruction deprives the human subjectof the power of understanding spoken words, mightso act upon the hearing-function as to cause hallucinations of words and sentences, he searchedthrough medical literature for evidence of a relationbetween auditory hallucinations and affections of thetemporal lobes. But while Nothnagel is able toadduce visual hallucinations as symptoms of lesionsin the occipital cortex, no definite indications of acorresponding connection between acousmata and1 Professor Wille knew a paranoic professor of botany who wouldcontinue counting up the genera and species of plants for four hours at a time.2 G. Burckhardt- Préfargier, " Ueber Rindenexcisionen, als Beitragzur operativen Therap. der Psychosen. " Paper read at the BerlinInternational Medical Congress.AND ILLUSIONS. 269lesions ofthe temporal lobes are to be found. Nevertheless Burckhardt holds that it by no means followsfrom the silence of the authorities as to auditoryhallucinations in temporal lesions of the cortex, "thatWernicke's convolution has nothing to do with theorigin of auditory hallucinations." He considers itmost probable that, " besides Wernicke's convolution,other cortical regions connected with the functionof speech must be simultaneously excited.I wasthinking," he adds, " in the first instance, of Broca'sconvolution, and of the possibility that it is onlythrough the co-operation of the motor elementlocated there that the hallucinations attain thestrength and clearness of the spoken word. " Quiteso, they possess this strength just because they arespoken words.2¹ In Ladame's catalogue ( Hirngeschwülste, Würzburg, 1865) two cases of " hallucinations" in tumours of the " middle lobe " arecited, but not one in tumours of the convexity. Bernhardt (Hirngeschwülste, Berlin, 1881 ) summarises five cases of tumour in thetemporal lobes, or their immediate neighbourhood, with rushing andbuzzing in the ears, and three with deafness (equal on both sides ), butnever mentions auditory hallucinations. In the case of Wernicke andFriedländer ( Gehirnkrankheiten, iii. p. 338) these are likewise absent.Nothnagel ( Top. diag. ) does not speak of them, neither does Roger(Lésions corticales, Paris, 1879) or Pierson (Die Localität der Hirnkrankheiten, 1880); the latter, however, gives the lack of observationsas a reason for the omission. Naunyn says nothing of auditory hallucinations in temporal (cortical ) lesions.2 Note, especially, in Case V. the difference in the effect of theexcision of the grey matter in the acoustic, and of the second operationin the motor vocal area. The observation is , as it were, complementaryto the case narrated by Pick , after Sir H. Holland (vide supra, p. 265).It may also be mentioned that, according to Sérieux (Archiv.der Neurologie, May 1894) , the autopsy in the case of a paralyticwoman, subject to auditory hallucinations of a pronounced motorcharacter, showed scarcely any changes except in the third frontal convolution on each side.270 HALLUCINATIONSTo this it might be objected that all the examplesgiven above, in which the patients were more or lessdistinctly aware of the movements of their vocalorgans in audible thinking, are so many direct refutations of the explanation I have given. Thisobjection may be met by referring to the examplegiven by Gurney (vide supra, pp. 154 sqq. ), and theconsiderations which it suggests. One may, however, specially point out that, in most cases, patientsconsider themselves as passively enduring the unrecognised vocal movements. The one theme, whosevariations we meet with in the statements of patients,runs thus: " My tongue is moved-some one isspeaking in my mouth." Here just that sense inthe patient of his own activity, which Cramer's hypothesis implies, is absent.Not satisfied with all these arguments, I have triedexperiments in order to produce automatic articulation. From the series of experiments, which (so faras any automatic articulation took place at all) forthe most part yielded positive results, the followingexample may be given.A. having been hypnotised, these directions weregiven him (carefully written out beforehand, so asto avoid any unintentional suggestions connectedwith hearing):-" You are aware that no thinkingis possible, except in words. When I wake you,after a time, you will articulate all your thoughtsvery forcibly. You will only do this until I give youan order to the contrary. You will articulate all yourthoughts very forcibly, but you will not notice thatyou do so; you will not be conscious of moving yourepiglottis, your tongue," etc. I expected speech as aresult of this suggestion. This did not take place.REEDOF 1hkUNIVERSITYAND ILLUSIONS 271On the contrary, after A. had been awakened, heassumed, almost immediately, a listening attitude. Hisexpression showed intense expectation; his look wasdirected sideways. After a considerable pause, heremarked spontaneously, " Tell me, do you thinkthere is any one in the room? ""But is there no one else? "searchingly about the room, and once more assumeda listening attitude. In order not to suggest to himany ideas having reference to this matter, and to leavehim uninfluenced, in view of future experiments, nofurther questions were put to him." Yes, you and I."He cast his eyesFrom all this, it would appear that the greaternumber of the " voices," if not all, are caused (in flatcontradiction to Cramer's theory) by automaticspeech on the part of the percipient. As in allautomatism, we must assume here, as in genuinehallucinations, a dissociation, a splitting off, even inthose cases where the hallucinatory perceptions formthe only symptom visible to the observer.CHAPTER IX.TELEPATHIC HALLUCINATIONS.Results ofthe International Census-Various sources of error:(1 ) Hallucinations ofMemory, (2) Reading back ofdetailsafter the event, (3) Exaggeration of the CoincidenceComparison between Coincidental and Non- Coincidental“Waking" Hallucinations misleading—Indications ofDissociation in the Death-Coincidences of the ReportAssociation ofIdeas not to be ignored-Other proofs ofTelepathy Criticised-Alleged special characteristics ofTelepathic " Hallucinations.66IN any general discussion of hallucinations it isimpossible at the present day to ignore the question of " telepathy. ” 1 Apparitions are frequentlyreported as coinciding with the death or withsome exceptional crisis in the life of the personwhose presence they suggest, and there is a disposition in certain circles to regard these as"veridical," that is to say, as depending in some wayon the event which they shadow forth. Numerous.attempts have been made to explain these " coincidental hallucinations," which it is supposed are of too1 The hallucinations of " clairvoyance " I purposely pass over here.The evidence for this reputed faculty seems to me of quite inconsider.able value, even that part of it which has been critically examined and sifted being open to grave objections. One of the most important contributions to the subject is Richet's " Relation de DiversesExpériences sur la Transmission Mentale, la Lucidité, etc. , " Proceed.S.P.R., vol. v. pp. 18-168.HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS. 273frequent occurrence to be merely fortuitous-attemptsranging from the first crude theories, the belief inghosts, guardian angels, and so on, to the modernhypothesis, put forward with due reserve and basedon an astonishing mass of material, to some extentcritically handled, which we owe to the researches ofthe English S.P.R., and especially to the authors ofPhantasms of the Living.But before formulating new theories, we oughtfirst to make sure that veridical coincidences¹ reallydo occur more frequently than chance will explain.The question whether we must postulate a newcause or attribute the coincidences to mere chance,may thus be regarded as purely a question offigures.2¹ I shall call a case " veridical " when the content of the hallucinationcorresponds to the event to which it is supposed to refer ( for instance,the apparition of a friend who is dying) , and I shall use the word"coincidental " only with reference to the correspondence in time.between the veridical hallucination and the event.2 The Report calculates the probability of chance coincidence incases of death as follows:-" The fact that each of us only dies once,enables us to calculate definitely the probability that that death willcoincide with any other given event, such as the recognised apparitionof the dying person. Taking as a basis for calculation the average annual death-rate for England and Wales for the ten years 1881 to1890, as given in the Registrar- General's Report for 1890, namely,19.15 per thousand, we get as the probability that any one person takenat random would die on a given day, 19.15 in 365,000, or about I in19,000. This, then, may be taken as the general probability that hewill die on the day on which his apparition is seen and recognised,supposing that there is no causal connection between the apparition and the death. We ought therefore to find that out of 19,000 apparitions of living persons, or persons not more than twelve hours dead,one is a death- coincidence. " Compare the chapter on the Theory ofChance- Coincidence, vol. ii. , pp. 1-28, in Phantasms of the Living,and two articles in the S. P. R. Proceedings for 1885 , pp. 190 et seq. , and1886-87, pp. 189 et seq.; also an adverse criticism of the evidence inthe Proceedings of the American S.P.R. , pp. 180 et seq. , and a review 18274 HALLUCINATIONSThe first obstacle which we encounter is the difficulty of obtaining satisfactory evidence of the coincidental character of the phenomena. The Englishobservers simplified their task, and at the same timeadopted a limit which seemed to them sufficient, byincluding only hallucinations reported as occurringwithin twelve hours of the event to which they weresupposed to relate.The reason given —a sufficiently plausible one—for allowing this interval is that a " telepathic " impression (that is to say, an impression conveyed tous by some still unknown means, but in any case notthrough the normal sensory channels) probably takesplace sub-consciously, and can emerge as a hallucination only when a favourable psychical state occurs,as we saw, for instance, in crystal visions.¹Whether or not this supposition would be found tocover the facts if the existence of a telepathic agencywere demonstrated, to adduce it while the proof oftelepathy is yet to seek is rather like arguing in acircle. In any case it is to be noted that the conceptionof coincidence is in this wise not inconsiderably extended.of Phantasms to the same effect in the American Journal ofPsychology.In all attempts at calculation we must keep constantly before us thefact emphasised by Edgeworth in the Proceed. of the S.P.R. , 1885:that " the calculus ofprobabilities cannot reveal to us the nature of theagency, whether it is more likely to be vulgar illusion or extraordinary law."1 It does not come within the scope of the present work to discuss thevarious forms (emotion , involuntary movements and ideas, etc. ) underwhich telepathy is supposed to manifest itself. For a general survey ofthe theory of telepathy and the evidence upon which it rests, see FrankPodmore, Apparitions and Thought- Transference, an Examination ofthe Evidence for Telepathy ( Contemporary Science Series) , London:Walter Scott.AND ILLUSIONS. 275One ofthe main objects of the International Censusof Hallucinations, with the results of which I havedealt more fully in a previous chapter, was to discoverthe actual proportion between the number of hallucinations in general and those which are " veridical, " whichcoincide, that is, with a corresponding experience. Onthe first glance, the result of the Census seems distinctly favourable to the hypothesis of telepathy.¹Result ofthe Collections. —In the English Collection ,with which I shall chiefly deal , we find 372 hallucinations of a distinct and vivid kind, which representliving persons. (I take these figures from the "firsthand " cases, and shall henceforward ignore the"second-hand " accounts, as being insufficiently attested. ) Of the 372 first- hand cases 67 ( 18 percent. ) are reported as occurring coincidentally withthe death of the person whose " apparition " wasrecognised.2The final figures of the American Census are notyet to hand, but its results so far, as communicatedby Professor W. James in a letter to the MunichCongress, appear to be even more favourable totelepathy than the results of the English Collection.( In the latter the coincidences are 292 times morenumerous than chance would allow, while ProfessorJames reckons the disproportion in his cases as noless than 487.) But his 12 death- coincidences canhardly be taken seriously, since " only five" of them"have any corroboration, and in no case is it firstrate "! With such data, above all in dealing with sobaffling and so vexed a question, no conclusion can1 Compare below Appendix II. , Table 8.2 According to the Report, 65 coincidental cases, besides 15 othercases which were rejected on various grounds.276 HALLUCINATIONSsafely be drawn. It is futile to guard against forgetfulness and so on when it is not even certain thatone genuine veridical coincidence is to be foundamong the cases. Marillier's French Collection gives35 first- hand coincidental cases = 1.7 per cent. of allthe hallucinations reported. But in the majorityof these cases he found it impossible to obtainany further details, or independent confirmation ofthe statements. He received on the whole theimpression that the coincidences appeared to thenarrators closer than they really were.¹ The MunichCollection is distinguished by the great number ofcases in which the percipient reports the coincidenceof the vision, voice, or touch with a death. It isalso relatively rich in cases where several personssimultaneously shared in the hallucination (see casesin Appendix I. ).Arguments Against the Veridical Nature of theCases Reported.-It is among the narratives of this lastCollection, however, that the most obvious indicationsare to be found of the common tendency (which isperhaps responsible for most reported coincidences) toconnect events, especially those which are importantand striking, with each other. Take, for instance,the following case:-(Munich Collection , iii. 23. ) " I hereby certify that in May.1888 my wife and I were awakened simultaneously by a loudnoise, which sounded like the breaking of a glass door and thefalling ofthe splinters. There was no such door in our house.I went to see what was amiss, but found everything as usual.Three weeks after my father- in- law died . "3Captain K.'s narrative is equally characteristic.1 Report ofSecond International Congress of Psychology, pp. 66 et seq.2 See below, Appendix II. , Table 8.3 See Appendix I. , Munich Collection , xvi. 2 b.AND ILLUSIONS. 277He states that he saw a black balloon- like ball ascendinto the sky, whereupon he immediately thought ofhis mother, who was ill, although she was thenexpected to recover, and he was not feeling anxiousat the time. "Next day," he adds laconically, “ Ifound my mother worse (unconscious); on the 29thOctober she died " [3-4 days after the apparition].Hallucinations of Memory.-It is not improbablethat we have to deal in many of these cases with amnemonic error of a peculiar kind. Thus I shouldbe inclined to refer with Royce¹ a large class ofrecent cases, vouched for by persons whose honestyis undoubted, and who are in nowise superstitiousor inclined to mystical beliefs, to a hallucination ofmemory consisting in the impression at the verymoment of some exciting experience, or at a longeror shorter period after it, that one has expected it beforeits coming.66 Royce suggests a provisional explanation of the process; wemight call it a sort of " cramp of recognition," a momentaryspasm of the activity of apperception," he says. As one towhom a stranger has accidentally bowed on the streetmomentarily tries to believe that he does after all recognisethe stranger, so one surprised by a calamity, even in the midstof the shock of it, still tries to believe that things were alwaysso with him. "Just my luck! " cries one. " It was sure tohappen, I knew it before," exclaims another. These are, ofcourse, only half- sincere, conventional ways of meeting misfortune. They produce in general no hallucination. Butsometimes under the sudden strain, or soon after the blowhas fallen, consciousness gives way, the spasmodic effort to"realise" this new intolerable thing, to familiarise the mindwith it, overshoots the mark, and a kind of pseudo- recognitiontakes place. The experience now seems strangely familiar.We must have known it before, we had a presentiment of it.1 Proceedings ofthe American S. P.R. , pp. 366 et seq.278 HALLUCINATIONSThis process, which occurs sporadically in certain sanepeople under certain exciting conditions, may in abnormal casesbecome the more or less constant accompaniment of every actofapperception. It is not, however, a form of mnemonic erroroften observed among the insane. Kraepelin speaks of it asrepresented by " a small group of observations." The patient,he says, is perfectly conscious of his real surroundings, andevents wear a familiar face to him, not because he thinks he hasexperienced them before, but because he imagines they havebeen revealed to him in visions or foretold to him in somemysterious way.Since such a fallacy of memory is just as capableof deceiving as a sensory hallucination, and sinceit generally occurs in exciting circ*mstances, that is,in circ*mstances which tend to lower the criticalfaculty of those present, and often actually to predispose to the reception of waking suggestions,witnesses will soon be found-even supposing complete integrity on the part of those concerned-totestify to the actual occurrence of the presentiment.Frequently other hallucinations of memory followand other imaginary impressions are rememberedwhich testify to the existence of the presentimentprevious to the occurrence of the event in question;or, again, and probably in the majority of cases, -present impressions are projected backwards in a forminvoluntarily modified to suit the presentiment.3Some examples will illustrate this."One week from to-night ( Friday, December 9th) I had avivid dream. I was in a store with a friend, selecting a pistol.1 Kraepelin, " Ueber Erinnerungsfälschungen, " Arch. f. Psych. , xviii.pp. 393-409, gives two cases. For some other cases which may perhapsbe classed here see v. Krafft - Ebing, Lehrb. d. Psychiatrie, 2nd ed. , ii.p. 146; Arch. f. Psych. , xx . p. 337.2 Kraepelin, Arch. f. Psych. , xviii . p. 395.3 Cf. Bernheim, De la Suggestion.AND ILLUSIONS. 279My friend was purchasing the pistol with the intention of committing suicide. I seemed to favour my friend's project, and was busy helping him to pick out a suitable one. I can see thestore, the pistols, and all, very vividly now. The picture hasfixed itself in my mind. The following night my friend, G. Z.,shot himself in a New York hotel. I did not mention thedream to any one, thinking it of no consequence. The shootingwas a great shock to me, as I had no suspicion of such athing."1"Miss C.'s younger sister 2 came home from town, and beganto say, ' Aunt G. is ill Stop,' said the elder sister; ' before you say another word, let me tell you a singular dreamwhich I have had. I thought I was walking up the steps to myaunt's house, when some one met me and told me that my auntwas ill, but that it was impossible at that time to say what wasthe matter with her, but it would be decided very soon. I went upthe steps again in an hour or two, and then was told ( I think bythe doctor) that there was no doubt now-it was pneumonia.'A few days after this conversation, the aunt died of acutebronchitis."(Munich Collection, ii. ) " When my mother died, January8th, 1890 (at Donau-altheim, of influenza , at the age of 67) , I waslying awake in bed, in my house at Dillingen. At 7.30 A.M. Ifelt myselftouched through the clothes, three times, quite firmly,as if by a hand. I began to weep, because I already had apresentiment that my mother would die. I mentioned this atthe time, and an hour later, on the same morning, I receivedthe news that my mother had died that morning at 7.30.was wide [awake] , but had a slight headache. I had neverpreviously experienced anything of the kind, and am not otherwise out of health."IPerhaps the following narrative, like a greatnumber of cases of second sight, really belongs tothe same class, though it must be admitted that thenarrator may have experienced genuine sensory hal1 Proceedings Amer. S. P. R. , p. 375. The further details there givenfurnish a good example of the distinctness which can be assumed by thiskind of retrospective hallucination.2 Ibid. , pp. 385, 386.280 HALLUCINATIONSlucinations. The greater number of the occurrences,however, are probably based on the kind of memoryfallacy we have been discussing.me.(Munich Coll. , xxix. ) " I saw and heard persons speaking toTheir appearance was mostly, I might say, grey, vaporous,transparent, yet they wore clothes, like ours. They usuallywarned me of misfortunes, of which I told other people, andthey came to pass within eight or ten days. I also hadvisions, and often saw fires. After an interval, usually offrom six to eight days, the house which I had seen on fire wasreally burnt down. The thing comes all at once, of itself, anddisappears again. . . . My wife also heard knockings and felther feet touched."...To another kind of memory- fallacy, called byKraepelin the " identifying fallacy," many of thosecases are probably to be referred, in which the narrator believes he has previously passed through thesame experience, corresponding in all its details, in adream or hallucination.This form of qualitative disturbance of reproduction, whichcauses a whole situation to appear as the exact repetition ofa previous experience, frequently occurs in healthy subjects,especially young and imaginative persons, and is, in adults atleast, certainly to be understood as a symptom of fatigue.This is in accordance with the fact that, of the few cases observed in insane patients, several occurred in epilepsy, and theconnection of the disturbance with epileptic fits has often beennoted. In healthy persons it takes place at moments of weariness, when outward impressions are only perceived vaguely, asif in a dream, and the subject experiences a feeling of completemental vacuity, though without the power of stopping thestream of vague, indistinct images hastening through the mind.To this article belongs alsoFor the literature of the 1 Kraepelin, Arch. f. Psych. , p. 400.the short summary which follows in the text.subject the student may be referred to the same passage; cf. alsoAllgemeine Zeitschriftfür Psych. , xlviii . , No. 6.AND ILLUSIONS. 281The conjunction of these two disturbances points to inhibitionof attention, making clear apperception impossible, and, inspite of energetic efforts of will, not allowing clearness of viewto be restored at once, but only after overcoming a certainresistance. This troubling of the consciousness, though onlyan accompanying phenomenon, yet no doubt acts as a predisposing factor.The attempts at explanation have proceeded on two differentlines, according as the reminiscence is taken to be a real butdim recollection of actual occurrences or not. The latter is theview adopted by Neumann, who considers that the " repeated "scene is simultaneously perceived as an image of the sensesand of the memory, but leaves the reason for the duplicationstill to seek. Anjel explains the duplication by supposingthat two processes, ordinarily simultaneous, perception andapperception, which may be supposed to be localised indifferent parts of the brain, may-through the retardationof the central conducting process in consequence of greatfatigue -be separated by a sensible interval, so that welose sight of the inner connection between the two, and takethe apperception for a figment of the imagination. Jensensimilarly assumes the separation of two processes psychologically overlapping, or divided only by an imperceptible interval,and seeks the organic ground of this incongruity in the theory-championed by Wigan and Schroeder van der Kolk-of anormal parallelism of the functions of both cerebral hemispheres. In fact, if, under ordinary circ*mstances, everyperception of each hemisphere takes place separately, and ifthis separate activity only fails to affect our consciousnessnormally, because of the complete simultaneity of all processes, every pathological or physiological disturbance ofthis harmony must lead to a temporary disintegration of theact of perception. Unfortunately, there are weighty objections to each of the above- named theories. But even theexplanation attempted (in the other direction) by Jessen,Sander, and others, of these delusions of memory as real, dimrecollections of actual experience in dreams, is not withoutdifficulties; it might be overthrown by the mere fact that otherkinds of memory- fallacies exist. This being so, a solutionwhich it is possible to accept has yet to be discovered .282 HALLUCINATIONSWhile, as a general rule, the " foreknown" sceneor circ*mstance appears to repeat a former wakingexperience, in the following examples the imaginaryexperience is transferred to a dream. Otherwisethey present all the marks of typical " identifying ”memory- delusions.One narrator states ¹ that during the night he dreamed a lineof verse unknown to him, and that next day this line was read,with a slight change, at a public commemoration. " I felt thatsomething was coming which was familiar, and as he ended theline I felt that I could repeat the next one, and I did so, aheadof him. But as we proceeded, I was confounded with the factthat apparently my line would not rhyme with his. As I said' die for,' he said ' do. ' I spent some minutes in trying todetermine whether I liked his sentiment or mine the most."The same narrator reports also a second and later incident ofthe same kind.In the above case all the characteristics of thememory-fallacy are clearly recognisable-viz. , thefeeling of having experienced the event (in adream), the dim presentiment of what is to follow,the sudden cessation of identity, and the feeling ofuneasiness accompanying all this (" I was confounded").The following case is probably an example of thesame fallacy:-—3"I thought I saw a mad dog coming up Randolph Street,and saw him attack my little eight-year-old boy, seizing him onthe upper arm near the shoulder. Such was the impression1 Proc. Am. S.P. R. , p. 373.2 Those love her best who to themselves are true,And what they dare to dream of, dare to do. "-Lowell, Harvard Commemoration Ode.Proc. Am. S.P. R. , p. 456.AND ILLUSIONS. 283that I soon awoke, and called to my wife and told her of mydream . ' Oh,' she replied, ' it is only one of your dreams!'I told her I never, in all my dreams, had had such a vividdream. I could not sleep any more that night, and could notshake it off. " On the narrator's return from the journey duringwhich this dream had taken place, he found that his son hadbeen bitten by a mad dog on the same part of the arm seen inhis dream .Adaptation of an actual hallucination to the eventafterwards connected with it. —But even in caseswhere the actual occurrence of a hallucination maybe assumed, there is still the question whether itsdetails were really identical with those presentingthemselves to the memory at a later period. Forit is just such " strange " occurrences, as would seemto most of us the partial correspondence of a dreamor vision with a subsequent event, which show atendency to assume within a short time a morefinished, perhaps a more interesting form, which thecommon instinct for dramatic completeness rendersplausible and natural, to the percipient's friends aswell as to himself. The points of correspondencecome out with special distinctness; those, on thecontrary, which do not correspond drop out ofsight or are assimilated to the rest.¹ Thus I1 Cf. Report, pp. 117 sqq. —from Dr. H. C.:-" In the year 1863( I think I could find out the very day and year with a little trouble.It was a Tuesday, five days before the death of a lady whom I used to connect in my mind with my vision. But as I did not do this when Irelated my story in the morning after, nor till after the death of thelady, I now reject this connection as a fanciful addendum), beingabout twenty-six years old, I was sleeping alone. . . . As I startedup and raised myself on my elbow I saw a tall lady . . . lookingsteadily at me with a most gentle, meditating gaze. About forty, Ishould say. I now say that I did not at all recognise the face. " It284 HALLUCINATIONSknow a lady (a great lover of dogs) who dreamedthat she was taking leave, with her family, of theirestate, which had been sold for the price of 750,000poodles. The dream was related and laughed over.A few days after her husband was approached by aland-agent with the inquiry whether he would bewilling to sell his estate. As an approximate pricewhich the purchaser, in the event of an arrangement,.might be willing to give, he named the sum of750,000 marks. This coincidence was quite sufficientto produce in the mind of the lady, a strictly veraciousperson, the delusion that she had not only dreamedthe number correctly, but the unit of value-i.e. ,that in her dream she had received, not a pack ofpoodles, but a sum of money as an equivalent forthe estate. And not only the lady herself, but thegreater number of her friends and relatives, allowedthemselves to be fully convinced that this was thetrue state of the case.follows from these words that the narrator (whom the rest of the narrative shows to have had a comparatively critical mind ) during the periodimmediately succeeding the lady's death, not only believed himselfcompelled to connect the apparition with the death, but also at thattime thought that he had recognised the figure as that of the deceased .It was only at a later period that he was able to free himself from theoverpowering impulse towards adaptation of memory and to correct hismemory-image.Cf. also Report , p. 284 ( case 402. 8): -A lady about to enter acarriage saw inside it a hallucinatory figure which she did notrecognise. Some days later she heard of the death of a gentlemanknown to her, and on the receipt of this news she immediately became aware that the apparition was no other than that of her deceased friend.Her sister agrees with this opinion— “ Grâce à ma description précise, ”adds the narrator naively!Case 49. 5 ( pp. 143 , 144) is of another kind, and rightly explainedbythe percipient.AND ILLUSIONS. 285As in this case, the hallucination rétroactive ischaracterised by the firmness with which the percipient's faith resists all assaults, by the obstinacy withwhich he persists in asserting the actuality of theOccurrence, and the extreme annoyance which heexhibits when any doubt is hinted as to the accuracyof his version. Many persons, not usually fanatics inthe cause of truth, prefer to submit to inconveniencerather than doubt their own recollections.The following was observed by myself: S-, a cow-herd,who had been several times hypnotised, was on one occasionwhen awake, some days after he had been last hypnotised,asked in a manner designed to give the suggestion, what hadhappened to the oxen, as they were running about the yardwith no one to look after them. This (imaginary) occurrencewas willingly admitted; S― accused himself of gross carelessness; the bailiff, coming in, declared that he knew nothingof the matter, and threatened S- with immediate dismissalin case it should really be as he represented. S― excusedhimself for his carelessness, but obstinately adhered to hisstatement that, through his fault, the oxen were running aboutand had been injured.Bernheim's descriptions of retroactive hallucinationsin hypnosis show the same character,¹ which, indeed ,they share with many sensory delusions-e.g. , in theinsane. Thus it would seem that it is often easier toconvince such a person that he has been mistakenin an objective sensory perception than to shake hisbelief in the objectivity of his hallucinations.2If we keep these considerations in view we shallfeel that it is necessary to maintain a very scepticalattitude towards all accounts of “ veridical " hallucina1 De la Suggestion, pp. 183 et seq.2 Compare the case of Moll's cited above, p. 245 , Note 3.286 HALLUCINATIONS

tions. Not of course that we should dismiss themoffhand as old wives' fables -an all too commonmethod of dealing with them -or even doubt thenarrator's good faith; but we should, so to speak,append two large notes of interrogation to each ofthe cases, and ask before we accept the evidence assatisfactory, first, whether the experience may not bedue to a hallucination of memory; and second, supposing the vision actually took place at the timeaffirmed, whether the details which exactly correspond to the details of the real event may not havebeen gradually developed afterwards by a process ofsophistication through which the hallucination cameto appear " veridical." And even if the second objection alone should hold good it would be sufficient initself to invalidate any conclusions from the veridicalcases reported, seeing that it would be impossible toestablish their veridicality.¹The Coincidence not always Proved.-If theabove objection applies to all the cases in thecollection alike, there remains yet another questionto be asked in individual cases: whether, to wit,granted the veridical character of the hallucination,the experience was really coincidental; and, in spiteof all the precautions taken by the committee, itseems to me that this is very doubtful. Surely1 Of course I should except cases in which, for instance, the percipient communicated the details of the hallucination, the time ofits occurrence, etc. , in a letter to a friend before hearing of the corre- sponding event. In this respect, however, the " best attested "narratives in the Report are in very poor case, for when notes are saidto have been taken or letters written at the time, they have been eitherlost or destroyed, or, if extant, are of such a kind that neither thedetails of the hallucination nor the exact coincidence can be provedfrom them,AND ILLUSIONS. 287cases like 418. 4, ¹ 425. 10,2 and 307. 20, ³ ought tobe excluded from the number. The reported correspondence, so frequently appealed to as proof bythe narrator, between the certified date of the deathand the time of the hallucination, proves nothing.For of course the percipient, assuming a discrepancybetween the dates, would transfer the hallucination tothe day of the death, and not the death to the dayof the hallucination.Though it would be interesting to take a group ofcases and analyse them as regards the probablegenuineness of the coincidences, I shall not attemptto do so here, as it would take up too much time toweigh the separate items of evidence. But if I haveonly briefly referred to this source of error it is notthat I consider it irrelevant or of secondary importance.¹Arguments against the Comparison of Coincidentaland Non-coincidental Waking Hallucinations. —But1 The percipient , Mr. Sims, is about six years out in his reckoning,and so is his wife. This is the more remarkable since the eventmust have occurred (Mr. Sims was about twenty years old at the time)very soon after their marriage, and therefore at a time which one wouldthink hardly likely to be confused with a period six years afterwards.2 Mr. A. Sherar, the percipient , struck his interviewers " as havinga very vivid recollection of his experiences. " Nevertheless, his statement (in Case 2) , " he believes he made out the coincidence of time, "and his somewhat remarkable vagueness about the date of his ownaffianced wife's death (" about July 1873? " ) , furnish sufficient groundfor excluding the case.3 Here the coincidence between the hallucination and the death wasnot discovered till some three weeks after the event. The mistakeabout the day of the week makes it very doubtful whether such a coincidence was really proved.4 Compare, for instance ( Proceed. American S.P.R. ) , the exhaustivecriticism on Phantasms of the Living, by Pierce, and Gurney'srejoinder,288 HALLUCINATIONSeven supposing that the bulk of the narratives arecorrect, we are still not entitled to assume that thenumbers of the coincidental and non-coincidentalcases are at all comparable.In the first place, it is very difficult in such aninquiry to guard against unconscious bias on thepart of the collectors, who might by the specialinterest attaching to the coincidental hallucinationsbe led unintentionally to select them. The committee have adopted various precautions againstsuch selection, but, nevertheless, it is shown thatof the coincidental phantasms of living persons 25per cent. , and of the non- coincidental cases only 8per cent. were known beforehand to the collectors.Moreover, in regard to another point, it is clearfrom the tables themselves that the percentage mustbe considerably reduced. Thus the table distinguishes,first, hallucinations which occurred within five yearsof the date at which they were communicated; second,those which occurred more than five years but notmore than ten years before they were reported; andthird, those which occurred at a still earlier period .In the last 5 years out of 84 cases 5 coincided with a death = 5.95 %"" preceding 5 99 99More than 10 years ago 50 99 5 9999 ,, 55 9999""10.055.0These figures furnish on the face of them the mostobvious confutation of the view ofthe English authors,¹1 Gurney, Proceedings ofthe American S.P.R., pp. 176, 177. “ Allthat I have assumed is, that a hallucination of the waking senses sodistinct as those which have occurred in the coincidental cases is likelyto survive in the mind on its own account, or at any rate to be recalledwhen the person who has experienced it is put into the right attitudefor recalling it by being asked a definite question on the subject. "Compare Phan!. ofthe Living, ii. pp. 10, 11 .AND ILLUSIONS. 289a view which is of course assumed in all calculationsof the kind, namely, that a hallucination persistsequally long in the memory and is as readily recalledin reply to a question, whether the experience madebut a slight impression on the percipient or affectedhim deeply, as would be the case, for instance, if thehallucination had been found to coincide with the deathof a near relative or friend. If such a suppositionwere justifiable, if we could leave the memoryfactor out of count in fixing the percentage, weshould, if we adopted these figures, either have toassume that the coincidences are enormously underrated, or that the death-rate among the favouredmortals who have experienced " veridical " hallucinations is nine times less than the death-rate ofthose whose hallucinations have, so to speak, prophesied falsely.Thus there is nothing for it but to explain the circ*mstance that the proportion of veridical hallucinationsreported as occurring more than ten years ago, isnine times as great as the proportion reported asoccurring within the last five years, as indicating thatsuch striking experiences continue to be rememberedwhen a multitude of other hallucinations have passedout of mind. To compare the numbers of coincidentaland non-coincidental hallucinations is to compare theincomparable, and the attempt must be abandoned atthe outset as fruitless.The writers of the Report-influenced, it is true, byother considerations-have sought to turn the pointof this objection by multiplying the whole number ofcases reported by 4. To go into the reasons foradopting this plan would lead us too far, ¹ but it seems1 See Report, pp. 62-65; pp. 246 et seq.19290 HALLUCINATIONSto have a good deal in its favour.¹ Nevertheless, itdoes not appear to me that the assumptions on whichthe calculation rests are well founded.A"veridical" hallucination is to be included amongthe "coincidental" cases even when it appears probablethat external circ*mstances have produced in the corresponding nerve element-groups the tension favourableto the occurrence of hallucination . There is therefore no objection to be raised when we find amongstthe cases reckoned as coincidental, narratives inwhich the shimmer of a reflecting surface formed theoccasion for the hallucinatory emergence of a subconsciously perceived “ shiny black waistcoat " andan individual subconsciously associated with thatimpression, or where the reflection of light in amirror was perceived as the apparition of a friendwho was seriously ill, and with whom the percipienthad been sitting up the night before. In anothercase certain objective sounds which were interpretedas footsteps, and a short conversation with one brother,led to the apparition of another brother passingthrough the room.5 There is of course nothing to besaid against the inclusion of these cases among the66 ¹ If the similarity of the figures, which seem to afford a foundation of "natural law " for the calculations, is not fortuitous. ' But where suchsmall numbers are involved [and the numbers are very small indeed! ]how can one be sure on this point? " (James, Psychol. Review,ii. p. 74).2Excluding, of course, cases where sensory impressions from thedeath-scene itself may have aroused the corresponding brain elements;for instance, where sounds of mourning from the death chamber, even ifonly subconsciously perceived , may have suggested that the event had taken place.3 Report, p. 237, Case 571. 14.4 lbid. , p. 237, Case 725. 6.5 Ibid. , p. 239, Case 385. 20, and p. 227, Case 620. 5.AND ILLUSIONS. 291coincidental ones, since the question is the coincidence,and even such a simple case as my seeing in somestranger's face the face of a friend (who was dying atthe time) might fairly be included; the problem atissue is the coincidental character of the phenomena,and that cannot be explained away by " mistakenidentity. "But if such cases may be legitimately reckonedamong the " coincidences," similar non-coincidentalcases ought not to be ruled out on the other side,but this is what the committee have done by reckoning them as " suspicious cases." If the cases excludedon this ground were taken into account in allowingfor forgetfulness, the multiplier would be not 4 but61. Moreover, we must take into consideration thatsuch cases cases would seldom be reported, that thegreat bulk of false perceptions, mistakes of identity,were excluded by the form of the question in thecircular, which admitted such phenomena only ascould not be explained by an external physicalcause.This consideration would in itself be sufficient todemonstrate that the percentage of " veridical " hallucinations was much too high. But even when all waking hallucinations are included the proportion is stillconsiderably too high, and the reason is that all thesecalculations, according to my view of the nature offalse perception, are vitiated by a fundamental fallacy.It is not merely that hallucinations which madelittle impression upon the mind soon fade fromthe memory, or that there is no legitimate groundfor separating " illusions," in Esquirol's sense, fromhallucinations; but there is absolutely no distinction,either theoretic or practical, to be drawn between the292 HALLUCINATIONSsense deceptions of the dream-state and those of thewaking-consciousness."""To prove the practical impossibility of such a distinction, I should have to discuss all the cases in theReport, an undertaking manifestly impossible here.But if I take for examination some sufficiently largegroup of cases which have been classed together inthe Report, on other grounds, I shall at least avoidthe error of generalising from certain selected narratives which tell in favour of my conclusion, the moreso since the series of cases which I propose to analyseare those included in the chapter on Telepathic Hallucinations (Report, pp. 207-241 ) , that is to say, arethose which the committee consider " on the wholethe best evidentially."The objection will perhaps be raised that, in myattempt to indicate the ground for assuming thatthese experiences occur in the dream-state, that isto say, while the percipient is drowsy or half asleep,I have attached too much importance to mere casualexpressions and turns of phrase. But when we consider how rapidly the details fade out of mind (asalready shortly indicated on p. 104) , and also thegradual change which the memory- image undergoes,both from the action of time and from frequentrepetition, so that at last the idea of having beenfully awake at the time becomes firmly fixed in thepercipient's mind, we become convinced that theslightest indications of the presence of such a state-which may be gathered from the percipient's description of his feelings and surroundings at thetime-are worthy of consideration. It is a proof ofthe honesty of the witnesses, and of the care withwhich the members of the S.P.R. have investigatedAND ILLUSIONS. 293individual cases, that in these very narratives, allreasons to the contrary notwithstanding, there areyet so many hints of this kind to be found.I shall now proceed to discuss the separate cases,all of which are described in the Report as " deathcoincidences."66I. (425. 12. ) Mr. S. reports the apparition of his aunt, whichtook place seven months previously; the phantasm seemed to say' good-bye. " The following details were obtained by Prof. H.Sidgwick in an interview with the percipient: " He had goneto bed early, eight-thirty, or a little later, and between nine andtwelve he woke up and saw In the early morning he toldhis wife: 'I have seen Aunt P I am sure she is dead.' ...He knows it was before twelve o'clock that he had thevision, because he used to get up at night and give the childsomething."• • •The fact that the percipient mentions his going tobed early would seem to indicate that this was nothis usual habit, and we may therefore infer that hewas unusually tired . The vagueness as to time ( in acase so recent) is a characteristic mark of the drowsystate. Considering the very friendly relations betweenthe percipient and his aunt (to whom he used to writeabout once a month), it seems hardly likely that Mr.S., if he were really awake, should have let the wholenight go by without communicating to his wife hisstrange experience and his firm conviction that hisaunt was dead, but should have quietly turned round.and gone to sleep again. Perhaps the whole experience was a dream, a morning-dream even, which,through an illusion of memory, was transferred to thefirst sleep. It is further to be noted that a lightwas burning in the room all night, a circ*mstanceof course favourable to visual dreams. We shallencounter this fact frequently.294 HALLUCINATIONS2. (381. 4. ) Mrs. T. P. Smith was roused from sleep by thevision of an acquaintance, who told her that she had " passedaway." In this case the percipient was, by Mrs. Sidgwick'saccount, "probably only half awake." In a further fuller accountMrs. Smith states that the figure appeared twice, and she isquite sure that she was awake " the second time. Nevertheless,the presence of the dream- state is clearly indicated by the uncritical spirit in which the apparition (and its strange utterance,"I have passed away") was received and taken for a realperson, though the acquaintance whom the figure representedwas then living at a distance, and expecting her confinement;and further, the characteristic absence of any feeling of astonishment. "She felt no fear nor sense of the supernatural,only anxiety to question further." The suggestion that she wasdreaming does not seem at first to have been very emphaticallyrepudiated by Mrs. Smith. To her sister's remark that it musthave been just a very vivid dream she merely replied, “ Well, itwas a very vivid one then. ” In the sister's account, Mrs. Smithis represented as waking her up " to tell her she had dreamt,”The fact that the percipient gets out of bed does notnecessarily indicate that he or she is fully awake. This is shownin a parallel case, Report, p. 72.etc.3. (362. 21.) Mrs. Baldwin had a complicated vision of thedeath of an uncle to whom she was much attached. This caseis twenty-five years old , so it is naturally difficult to obtaindetails, but still a circ*mstance, to which we have referredalready as not unimportant ( p . 71 ) , is indicated in the words," One morning at about four o'clock, as I was sitting in bedwith mybaby," etc.4. ( 147. 23. ) Madame Obalecheff saw the apparition of her brother-in-law. A maid- servant shared in the hallucination.To begin with, this case is very old, over thirty years. Nevertheless, the circ*mstances described are precisely those likely to induce the dream- state. It was eleven o'clock at night. Theroom was only dimly lighted by a little lamp burning before theikon, and one candle beside the bed. The husband was sleepingquietly in the same room, and the lulling sound of the sleeper'sbreathing would add its quota to the drowsy effect. The sleepymaid- servant, just aroused by her mistress's call, had settledherself on the floor beside the bed. Madame Obalecheff herself was propped up in bed suckling her infant, probably arousedAND ILLUSIONS. 295by the touches of the child's lips, her thoughts brooding more orless dreamily over it (" Je ne pensais alors rien qu'a mon fils ").Moreover, the experience is accepted in a way which indicatesthe characteristic absence of the critical element: the brother- inlaw lived at Iver, Madame Obalecheff in Odessa; but speaking of herself, Madame Obalecheff says, "Cette apparition nem'effraya nullement," while the maid-servant is described, inromantic contrast to her own calmness, as "trembling withfear." In fact the narrative conveys, on the whole, the impression of having in the course of time been worked up intodramatic completeness. It is, however, only given in translation.5. (579. 24. ) This case is given above on p. 97.6. (215. 9. ) Miss J. E. L. was lying awake in bed betweensix and seven o'clock in the morning. A friend suddenlyappeared and kissed her (hypnopompic hallucination ). Theaccount is extremely condensed.7. (630. 5.) Mr. T. H. saw in the night the figure of hisstep-brother pass through the room. He had been asleep andwas waked by a " rattling noise at the window," and wakenedhis other step- brother, who told him to go to sleep again; a fewminutes after the phantasm appeared-according to the account,that is to say. This case, which is about fourteen years old, iseasily explained as a hypnagogic hallucination, whose contentwas suggested by the objective noise, which was perceived as"footsteps," and possibly by something in the foregoing con- versation which suggested the absent brother. The corroborative account furnished by a witness does not entirely bear thisout, but may be taken as the more romantic, and, being secondhand, the less trustworthy version of the case. According tothis version, Mr. J. H. saw his brother, not walking, but “ in akneeling position."8. (83. 21. ) See above, p. 98.9. (307. 20.) Mrs. Murray, “awaking suddenly at night,” sawa man in naval uniform disappear behind a curtain. Thiscase, which, by the way, is more than twenty years old, oughtto be excluded from the group of cases considered " the bestevidentially," because of the vagueness of its date.10. (418. 4. ) The apparition was seen soon after going to bed.See above, p. 287, note I.II. ( 532. 12. ) The apparition appeared in the same circ*mstances as in the foregoing case.296 HALLUCINATIONS12. (730. 24. ) See above, p. 99.13. (458. 18. ) Miss S. R. R. saw her sister's form lying nearher the whole (!) night. The dream- state is very clearly indicated. (Compare below, Appendix I., case 1. 13. ) " Mythoughts were very much with my sister, who was dangerouslyill . . . and, just as I lay down, I plainly saw her lying dead beside me. I scarcely slept all that night, and there mysister lay beside me, and I was glad to have her, knowing toowell what the contents of the telegram would be next morning. ”The dream-character of the experience is also brought out inProfessor Sidgwick's report of his interview with Miss R.:"What she saw was first ' something white ' on a long cedarchest beside her bed. Then, looking closer, it seemed to herto be her sister in bed; the chest was plain, bare wood, but itseemed just like a bed. ” The presence of the dream- statecould hardly be indicated more clearly. Miss R. had hadsimilar visions after the death of her mother. "For threemonths after her death she used to come to me almost nightly,after I had retired to my bedroom. "14. (645. 11. ) Mr. Beer saw a recurrent apparition of hisfather. The indications in this case are almost as clear as inthe foregoing one, to which it forms a parallel. The impressionof having seen the phantom of his father first on the platform ata concert before he saw it in bed is probably due to a mistake;for when the vision appeared to him in the night it startledhim enough to make him get up and wake the footman, yet heappears not to have thought it necessary to communicate hisstrange experience at the concert ( when he supposed himself tobe fully awake), though his father appeared on the platform atfrequent intervals the whole time the concert was going on."Finally, he remained lying quietly in bed, although he says,on returning to my own room I again saw the figure of myfather leaning over me as I lay in bed " (thus the vision cameagain only when he had returned to bed), " and he remained onand off through the night." He must have had exceptionallygood nerves!6615. ( 725. 6. ) Dr. B. G. , who had spent the whole of theprevious night watching by the sick-bed of a friend, saw, atabout 3 A.M., an apparition of this friend passing in front ofa looking- glass. (Was there a light in the room?) The percipient was fifty- seven years ofa*ge at the time.AND ILLUSIONS. 29716. (385. 20. ) Mrs. C. S., after sitting up the whole nightwith her sister, who was ill, saw at 5 a.m. the apparition of hergrandfather, whom she knew to be seriously ill at the time.(A hypnagogic hallucination. )17. (579. 25. ) Mrs. A. was lying in bed at ten o'clock in theevening, after a journey of one hundred versts into thecountry. That it had been slow and tedious, and thereforeprobably not accomplished without some fatigue, seems indicated by the early start for the return journey. We may therefore conclude that she was feeling tired. The bailiff'smother was making up a bed for herself in the same room,and while she arranged her pillows, with her back turned tothe percipient, she went on talking-of nothing very excitingapparently, and from the talker's position her voice would.probably reach the hearer as a monotonous, murmuring sound.Suddenly the percipient had a vision of a hand. (CompareReport, p. 115, case 692. 2, hypnagogic hallucination. )The cases which follow bear a strong resemblanceto crystal-visions. These latter phenomena areindeed often regarded by the percipients as occurring in the normal consciousness. Nevertheless, thisassumption is distinctly opposed to the followingaccount, by a friend of " Miss X," the author ofRecent Experiments in Crystal- vision, of her ownobservations in connection with the latter's visions.¹"On January 29th, X. and I were dressing to go [out] whenI suddenly noticed that her eyes were fixed on the window, ina manner I know well and have long learned to associate withsomething uncanny? I waited till her face regained itsnormal expression, and then asked what she had seen or whatshe felt. She turned to the clock, and said in a dreamy, faraway tone . . .”I have repeatedly used this example to illustratemy point, because it shows that so good an observeras " Miss X." may think herself fully awake, although1 Proceedings ofthe S. P. R. , 1895 ( March ) , p. 132.298 HALLUCINATIONSan onlooker finds obvious symptoms of a dreamystate. In the three following cases from the Report,which, as I have said, have many points in commonwith crystal-visions, a similar state may be presumed.18. (571. 14. ) Mrs. Belcher, who appears to have experiencedother visions in reflecting surfaces ( she mentions one other),was sitting in the dusk at supper with her mother and auntin the dining- room, with her back to the window and facingan old- fashioned side-board (the polished surface of whichnaturally reflected the window opposite) . "Ifelt as if I couldnot take my eyes off him," she adds, speaking of the phantasm,and the feeling she describes is characteristic of the dreamstate.19. ( 425. 10, case ii . ) Mr. Alex. Sherar, a sailor, saw reflectedin the ship's compass the face of his betrothed (see above, p. 287,note 2, for criticism ofthis case).20. (328. 15. ) Dr. A. T. saw a cloudy figure (probablyentoptic) which, when he gazed at it intently, revealed itself asthe phantasm of his father. Circ*mstances: " Assis seul ...sous l'influence de très tristes pensées: Je n'ai rien fixé. "Absence ofcriticalfaculty: In spite ofthe gradual developmentof the phantasm, the percipient declares that he was " plutôtincliné à croire à la présence réelle de mon père qu'à une' apparition. ""21. ( 191. 3. ) If, indeed, a hallucination took place, and not amere error of memory, in the following case, which is nearlysixty years old (see below), it may be bracketed with the casejust quoted. “ I was leaning in a listless sort of way againstthe kitchen table, looking upwards to the ceiling, thinking ofnothing in particular. " Thereupon an apparition developeditself gradually, probably from an entoptic nucleus.I repeat once more that I by no means assert thatthese hints and indications suffice to prove in each ofthe cases under consideration the presence of adecided state of sleep-stupor, or even of a slightdegree of drowsiness. In some cases they doindicate such a state almost with certainty, in theAND ILLUSIONS. 299greater number they suggest it, and in all they raisethe suspicion. That in the other 6 cases (22.22 percent. of the whole number) none of these suspiciouscirc*mstances are reported is of course attributable,in the first instance, to the fact that no questions wereasked calculated to elicit them; secondly, to the longperiod of time which had elapsed, II years in case42. 17, over 14 in case 383. 24, about 10 in case 379. 24,exactly II in case 422. 25. and about 27 in case452. 10. Case 61. 22 is the only comparatively recentone (about two years old when the communication wasmade). It is all the more remarkable then that inother old cases where no leading questions wereasked so many suspicious circ*mstances are to befound. And we are not dealing here, be it noted,with casual " borderland " cases, hallucinations occurring in the transition period between sleeping andwaking, but with the 27 cases of " waking hallucinations " selected as " the best evidentially! "It is the same thing over again . Hallucinationswhich are either in the first instance distinguished bystrong emotion, or are stamped upon the mind by theoccurrence of an event corresponding to them, outlast hundreds which, because they make no specialimpression, soon pass from the memory. But thispeculiar state of feeling at the time, and the vividnessof the impression left on the memory, are among thecauses which lead the percipient to feel, " I must have1 The fact that the " suspicious cases, " i.e. , cases in which there aregrounds for supposing mistakes of identity, etc. , decrease in frequency asthe period between the date of the experience and the date at which itwas reported lengthens, of course admits of the same simple explanation-the tendency of " suspicious circ*mstances to drop out of mindin the course of time, and their consequent omission from the narra- tives.""300 HALLUCINATIONSbeen awake. " This feeling, however, the one distinctive feature of the so-called waking hallucination, isdeceptive. This can be demonstrated ad oculos in thelighter stages of hypnosis, and objective indicationsofit are to be gathered, as we have just seen, from thereports.Thus we find that it is impossible, in practice as intheory, to distinguish between waking hallucinationsand those of sleep. And this again points to thechief defect in the census question, which restrictedthe inquiry to " waking hallucinations," while fromthe nature of the case " coincidences " must reach ahigher proportion in this class than chance wouldaccount for. The correct method would be toendeavour to ascertain the proportion of all deathcoincidences amongst hallucinations, both of thewaking and the sleeping state. The result could ofcourse only be estimated approximately, but thatsuch a comparison would prove very unfavourableto telepathy may safely be assumed from the factthat with increased practice and careful self- observation the number of remembered dreams is greatlyincreased.¹Association of Ideas.- My first objection wasdirected against the material collected, and aimedat showing that, in view of the probability of adelusion of memory, it must remain an openquestion whether in each case a sensory deception really occurred; or, again, even if the hallucination were really " yeridical "-i.e. , if its contentcorresponded to the actual event-whether it coincided in time. In other words, the objection was1 See Nelson, "A Study of Dreams, " AmericanJournal ofPsychology,vol. i. 3.AND ILLUSIONS. 301directed against the postulate which underlies thecalculations of the Sidgwick Committee. But anothercriticism remains to be made: no matter how greatthe number of coincidences, they afford not even theshadow ofa prooffor telepathy. A very crude illustration may serve to show what is still to be urgedagainst the telepathic nature of the coincidence.Suppose A. and C. are sleeping in a room withouta fire on a frosty winter night, and that the window.has not been properly fastened, so that the cold nightair is streaming into the room. B. goes past A.'shouse in the piercing cold outside, and it occurs tohim to try a telepathic experiment. He seeks totransfer to A. the feeling of cold which he is thenexperiencing. Having done what he thinks necessaryto attain this end he hurries home, and on the following day at the midday meal, which A., B., and C. arein the habit of taking together, C. gives him thefollowing account of his nocturnal experiences: -“ Lastnight I was wakened by loud groans from A. Hisbed- clothes had slipped off, leaving him exposed tothe cold, and he was dreaming of an expedition tothe North Pole, and imagined himself attacked bya polar bear! That shows how dreams come about;it is easy to see that A.'s dream resulted from thecold to which he was exposed." Would B. object tothis common-sense explanation? "Not so, my good C.,Itransferred my feeling of cold to A. telepathically,hence the dream."If the elements (discussed in Chapter VI. ) corresponding to the specific content of a given hallucination are to hand, it is not possible to regard thecase as though it owed its existence not to theseelements but to quite another chain of causes. The302 HALLUCINATIONSwhole argument of the Sidgwick Committee is validonly so long as it is dealing with coincidences inwhich the veridical content cannot arise from normalknown factors.Now, the writers of the Report appear to assumethat they are dealing in by far the greater proportionof coincidences with hallucinations whose specificcontent could not be brought about in the normalway, especially as they have indicated that excitement and anxiety about the person representedby the phantasm and " suggestion " were of importance only in a small proportion of the cases.¹ Butthese are not, after all, the weightiest factors: onewhich is of much higher importance, to wit, theassociation of ideas,2 has been left altogether out ofaccount. It must indeed be conceded that it is noteasy to trace the connection of ideas in the hallucinatory state, and to show how, when dissociation is1 See Report, chapters ix. and x . , where the evidence for theinfluence of anxiety, nervous strain, expectancy, and suggestion is discussed .2 Compare above the crystal-visions of " the old vicar, ” p. 68, the"Jewish Elder, " and the " pentagram , " p. 69; the Rigi- kaltbadincident, p. 197; Münsterberg's experiments, Binet's " verbascumthapsus " story, p. 198, etc. One other case, to which I have alreadyreferred briefly above, I should like to quote here more in detail. Thefollowing account is slightly abridged from the Report, pp. 143,144:-" ... One night I saw a woman come through the door.I distinctly saw her features. ... . . . She had on an old- fashioned bonnetand an old-fashioned caped cloak, and she was carrying a basket infront of her, such as country women carried their husbands' dinners in....Agreat hurricane was blowing. I was dreadfully disturbed andhysterical next day-the impression so vivid and yet unable to say who it was. About a week after the revelation came. All at once Ijumped up, saying, ' It is Mrs. Beasant. ' Mrs. Beasant was the prettyyoung bride of a farmer with whom, when about ten years old, weused to go and take tea at a farm two or three miles from the vicarage.AND ILLUSIONS. 303present, they may lead to a particular hallucination,just as in the normal state they evoke a specificmental image. We are not all gifted with the specialfaculties of an August Dupin.¹ Besides, in followingup these delicate clues, we are handicapped by ourslight knowledge of the hallucinatory personalities,by our ignorance of facts about them which wouldindicate the subtle points of connection which lead upto the hallucination. But though these factors canseldom be traced , I believe I have succeeded above inindicating some of them.2 This point is, however, ofminor importance, since their existence is to be presumed, and it is not their presence but their absencewhich needs to be proved-a task which falls, ofcourse, to the share of those who seek to put a newcausal nexus in place, or alongside, of the normalelements.Naturally, this proof is not forthcoming, and in itsOne day she went with her husband's dinner as usual, and he wasfelling a tree. She passed the wrong way, and the treefell on her andkilled her. I remember watching her funeral and the anguish ofspirit at her death, but never remember speaking of it or the circ*mstance since. The day before a nurse of the name of Beasant had disturbed and annoyed me. Afew months before a large elm- tree hadfallen in our garden and partly on the house. A hurricane was blowingat the time, and I remember thinking ' what a lucky thing that treecan't fall on the roof. ' This narrative shows with special clearness howthe content of the hallucination may depend on a train of ideas startedin the first instance by some sensory impression -in this case ' theblowing of the hurricane, ' and how impossible it must be for theobserver to trace the windings, turnings, and doublings of individualthought through a labyrinth for which he has no clue. "1 The amateur detective in Edgar Allan Poe's tale, " The Murdersin the Rue Morgue. "2 See the discussion on p. 219 above on the influence of subconsciousimpressions, etc. , and the references to cases in the Report theregiven.REESE LIBRARYOF THEUNIVERSITYOF CALIFORNIA304 HALLUCINATIONSProf.stead we are asked to accept as evidence the disproportionately high number of coincidences.James states the argument briefly as follows:—...A "We have three orders of frequency in hallucinations to consider, that of hallucinations at large, that of hallucinations ofpersons, and that of dying persons. These may be caused bytheir respective objects, or may come at ' random,' their causeslying exclusively in the subjective cycle. The point is to seewhether anything in the frequency can help us to decide whichof these alternatives is the true one. . . . Obviously, if personsdo not cause hallucinations of themselves, the hallucinations ofpersons should be no more frequent among hallucinations thanpersons are frequent among all the things that may becomeobjects of hallucinations; whilst, on the contrary, if persons, andpersons alone, do cause hallucination, then hallucinations ofpersons shouldbe relatively more frequent than other hallucination, because the causation by the real outer object would besimply added, for this class alone, to the random inner causesthat produce hallucinations in general. Similarly, if the deathsof persons do not tend to cause hallucinations of those persons,the hallucinations ' of the dying should be no more frequentamong hallucinations of persons than the dying themselves arefrequent among persons; whilst if, on the contrary, the dying,and the dying alone, among persons, do cause hallucinations ofthemselves, then these hallucinations should be more frequentamong hallucinations of persons than the dying among the whole population of persons. This latter ratio is what theSidgwick Committee finds realised in fact, hence its conclusionthat the dying do cause hallucinations of themselves. "I must beg to differ! Such a conclusion cannot bedrawn as long as it is not proved that there arehallucinations which are independent of " randominner causes. " As long as this is not proved, that isto say, as long as the normally induced images mustbe provisionally accepted as causes, the conclusion1 Psychol. Review, II . i . , pp. 70, 71 .AND ILLUSIONS. 305drawn from the relation of coincidental to non-coincidental cases must be as follows: " Out of a group of20,000 persons, to take round figures, 2000 hallucinations are reported, of which 500 are realisticapparitions of human beings, and of these 50 arecoincidental. As these coincidences could only haveoccurred in a proportion of I: 19.000, it is to be concluded that each 20,000 persons have had 19.000 × 5009.500.000 hallucinations, dreams, etc., of realistic.human beings. " That is to say, that instead of inferring from the coincidental cases a specific causation,we should, on the contrary, infer from the number ofcoincidences, and according to the probability- factor,how many hallucinations may be conjectured to haveoccurred in a given group; we should use, to multiplythe hallucinations, a factor which would balance thevarious sources of error, forgetfulness, the misleadingform of the question, etc. (The multiplying factorwould then certainly have to be somewhat higherthan the modest 4.)A Typical Case.—At the conclusion of this discussion I will give in full a case where the associationof ideas may be traced, and where the presence of thedissociative state was proved, although, in the classicalway, the percipient felt wide awake at the time, and thecoincidence between the " waking hallucination " andthe death of the individual whose phantasm it represented would certainly have been established ifobjective proof had not been forthcoming to showthat the whole experience was a dream.¹ Only theaccidental discovery of this pièce de conviction distinguishes this case from the analogous cases of theReport, which it may help to elucidate.1¹ Journal ofthe S.P. R. , No. 56, vol . iv. pp. 12 et seq.20305HALLUCINATIONSFrom Mr. Pratt, Camden House, Lower Merton, Surrey.December 13th, 1882.On December 31st, 1856, I , Thomas Pratt, was residing at,and carrying on the business of a clerical tailor, etc., at 50ACambridge Street, corner of Warwick Street, Pimlico, the houseat that time being known as Oxford House, Cambridge Street.Mr. Gleddos, a young curate of St. Barnabas' Church, Pimlico,came to me to pay his bill and order a new clerical coat aboutseven o'clock in the evening, saying he was going away for ashort time, and he wished the coat to be ready to fit on by thetime he returned. He was in a great hurry, having severalcalls to make before evensong, which was at eight o'clock. Hedid not give me time to finish receipting his bill, but took itaway with only the word Rec. written on it and left the houseimmediately.I was busy making a clerical coat that was wanted the nextday, and had decided to sit up to finish it. I was accustomedto work all night frequently, and continued working at the coatafter my wife and family had retired to bed. I kept on workingand thinking about my order, planning it out in my mind, whensuddenly Mr. Gleddos appeared at the corner of the board onwhich I was sitting, and at the same spot as he had stoodin the evening, and looking just the same as he did in theevening; thegaslight was between us. At that moment the roomdoor opened and he vanished. The fright was so great, I felt myhair go stiff up on my head. I had leaped from the board andlooked outside the door, but saw nothing of him. Creepingupstairs as best I could , my knees shook so violently I did notknow what to do, but got into bed and covered my head overwith the clothes and told my wife what had happened. I hadleft the gas burning, and when I got up felt very unsettled , andcould not begin to work. About nine or a little after FatherLyford came to me, bringing the partly receipted bill in hishand, and inquiring if I knew anything about what was writtenon it , as Mr. Gleddos was found dead, and the bill was on thetop of the drawers in the bedroom where he had died. Ithentold him what I had seen in the night. He seemed very muchshocked, and told me not to talk about it.1 The Rev. Charles Lyford was curate at the same church, but wascalled Father by those who knew him best,AND ILLUSIONS. 307As the day went on and I became more calm, I commencedto finish the coat. Now this will, I think, be the most important part of my ghost story. I had finished both halves ofthe coat, and only the back seam remained to be joined. Itwas this middle seam I was working at, and had sewn up tobetween the shoulders when Mr. Gleddos appeared, and here Ifound myneedle as I had left it. As I was about to begin, I wassurprised atthe lastpart ofthe back stitchingforhem; the stitcheswere all shapes and not one alike. This convinced me that Ihad been asleep, although my hand had used the needle at thesame time. Having convinced myself it was a dream, the doorcoming open had woke me from my sleep, which could nothave been altogether more than half a minute.The door of the room was in the habit of coming open withthe least vibration caused by wind, and from these two circ*mstances I came to the conclusion that I had dreamed ofseeing him only. Had not these things come to my knowledgein this way as I have described them, I should have believed Ihad seen a real ghost, and nothing would perhaps have convinced me to the contrary. But I feel quite certain I didnot see him with my eyes I work by, although at the timeeverything appeared to favour the belief of an apparition.THOMAS PRATT.¹Some other Alleged Proofs of the TelepathicCharacter of certain Hallucinations. Collective Hallucinations.-There are, however, other phenomenabesides coincidental hallucinations which are adducedin proof of telepathy, of which the most importantare the so- called " collective " hallucinations. This¹ I cannot agree with the explanation suggested in the Journal-i.c. ,that the phantasm was an after- image. It is apparent that a series offactors likely to suggest the content of the hallucination were present;the sudden bursting open of the door by the wind probably repeated thesound made when Mr. Gleddos entered the room ( " he was in a greathurry "); the percipient's thoughts were busied about Mr. Gleddos'order; perhaps, also, the glare of the gas-lamp when the percipientlifted his head and glanced in the direction of the door, as he hadglanced when Mr. Gleddos entered (" the gaslight was between us "),acted as one ofthe suggestive influences.308HALLUCINATIONSterm , however, must not be understood to includehallucinatory phenomena affecting great crowds ofpeople, since it is admitted that " popular " orepidemic " hallucinations are not telepathicallycaused.Although such phenomena are not exactly offrequent occurrence, yet a series of more or lesstrustworthy accounts exists. Thus we find in 2Maccabees v. 2, 3, " Through all the city, for thespace almost of forty days, there were seen horsem*n running in the air, in cloth of gold andarmed with lances, like a band of soldiers. Andtroops of horsem*n in array, encountering andrunning one against another, with shaking ofshields, and multitudes of pikes, and drawing ofswords, and casting of darts, and glittering of goldenornaments, and harness of all sorts. " These apparitions are said to have preceded the plunderingof the temple at Jerusalem by Antiochus, andJosephus also narrates that portents of the samekind appeared before the destruction of Jerusalemby Titus. Perhaps these and similar cases might bereferred to peculiar atmospheric and meteorologicalconditions. Thus the astronomer Heis has explainedthe army seen at Büderich on January 22nd, 1854,as arising from a ſog- bank and mirage.¹Such an origin is also indicated by the circ*mstancethat these apparitions are often mentioned as showingthemselves at sunset, after a thunderstorm. Thus, inSeptember 1680, at Chemnitz, a protocol was drawn.up from the sworn testimony of witnesses, who asserted that immediately after sunset they had seen¹ Cf. Jahn, Astronomische Unterhaltungen ( 1854 ) , Nos. 11 and 12;Fechner's Centrlblt. ( 1854) , No. 24.AND ILLUSIONS. 309armies fighting and firing at each other in the sky.In the summer of 1571 many inhabitants of Praguesaw a visionary troop of horsem*n enter the NewTown after a heavy storm. Perhaps Braid's 2 narrative of a delusion affecting a number of people onthe banks of the Clyde below Lanark, in the year1686, may be explained in the same way. Thesepersons collected on several successive days in thatplace, and saw the ground and the trees covered withbonnets, guns, and swords, while at the same time onecompany of soldiers after another marched along theriver bank, in such a manner that one companypassed through the other, whereupon the soldiers fellto the ground and disappeared. Immediately afterwards new companies appeared, marching in thesame manner. According to the account which hasbeen handed down, two- thirds of the persons presenttestified to their conviction of the reality of theseapparitions, and this conviction was expressed notonly in their words, but in the dread and terrorshown in their countenances, which struck eventhose who had seen nothing of the warlike spectacle. So early as 1785 the appearance of spectralsoldiers on several days in January and February,at Ujest (Silesia), was explained by mirage, whichrendered visible a detachment of troops marchingto the funeral of a certain General von Cosel. Thenarrative given in the English work of Ottway1 Horst, Deuteroscopie, ii. ( 1851 ) .42 The original account is to be found in the Biographia Presbyteriana of Patrick Walker, the Covenanter ( Edinburgh, 1827 , vol. i . p. 32).3 Similarly in 1655, in Upland, Sweden, many people saw a fight atsea and one on land take place simultaneously, and a month later afuneral procession .▲ The Spectre, pp. 382: “ Very Singular Appearance of a Vision. ”310 HALLUCINATIONSmight be similarly interpreted . It relates to thevision of two Scotsmen, near Inverary. They sawa company of soldiers in red, driving in theirmidst an animal like a horse. When the two percipients had changed their standpoint, and lookedagain at the place where they had seen the vision,it had disappeared. But presently they saw a mancoming towards them, who, when questioned, knewnothing of the soldiers, but who was leading a horse,in which they thought they could recognise theanimal which they had previously seen in thevision.In other cases strange and mysterious noisesmay furnish the material for " epidemic " auditorydelusions. Thus Studer¹ gives the following narrative:-" Seefeld (a mountain 4,600 feet high, on theeastern side of the Sohlfluh, Canton Bern) is saidto be haunted by spirits. Wyss (Reise im BernerOberland) relates that, according to a legend currentamong the peasants, the quantity of water in theBeatenbach-a brook emerging from a cave on theshores of the Lake of Thun-is connected with astrange sound like thunder heard on the SeefeldAlp, as though it came from the further side of theBeatenberg. This thundering was called in theneighbourhood ' the muster on Seefeld,' and hasbeen heard at a distance of several miles, resemblingthe file- firing of several companies, mingled with thesound of cannon. It is said to be heard at veryregular intervals, and to be invariably followed bya rise in the waters of the Beatenbach." With this1 Studer, Das Panorama von Bern ( 1850) , p. 69, quoting fromPerty, Der jetzige Spiritualismus, p. 32; cf. the additional examples on pp. 32, 33 ofthe latter work.AND ILLUSIONS. 311description may be compared the following communication: " On a cold winter's day in 1748, anoise was heard at Solothurn like a distant cannonading in the air, and a few minutes later the strains ofa full Turkish band, so that all the inhabitants rushedout of doors. Drums and fifes could be quite clearlydistinguished . Some listeners even stated that theydistinctly heard the second parts of the wind instruments. "1But though some " popular " hallucinations maybe partially explained, as in the above instances, byunwonted natural phenomena, in many cases thechief factor must be sought in the emotionalexcitement, and, generally, in the mental predisposition of the percipients. The following is anexample:-2All the crew of a vessel were frightened by the ghost of thecook, who had died some days previously. He was distinctlyseen by all, walking on the water with a peculiar limp whichhad characterised him, one of his legs being shorter than theother. The cook, who had been recognised by so many,turned out to be a piece of wreck, rocked up and down bythe waves.In the same way, the whole of the thirty- two menformingthe crew ofthe castawayyacht, " Ter Schelling,"saw fishermen at work, whom they took for Dutchmen, on a desolate and in reality quite uninhabited.coast. So great was the contagious force of thishallucination, that not only the sailors, but the1 Perty, Die mystischen Erscheinungen der menschl. Natur ( 2nd ed . ) ,i . p. 133. The majority of the above instances are taken from thisauthor.2 Hibbert, Sketches of the Philosophy of Apparitions ( Edinburgh,1825).312 HALLUCINATIONScaptain, mate, and surgeon saw it even when makinguse of the telescope.To this category belong also the many religious"epidemic " hallucinations, which occur with especialfrequency at times when a religious community isbeing formed, or during any period of religiousexcitement. An example may here be briefly given.¹Near Mettenbuch, a small hamlet on the edge of the Bavarianforest, not far from Deggendorf, lights had been seen by variouschildren from the middle of September 1877 onwards, hoveringabout a damp spot in a ravine, where a blackberry bramble was growing over the stump of a tree. These were setdown as " lights of the souls in purgatory " (" Armen- SeelenLichter "), and prayers for the dead were offered up on thespot. To prevent disorder, these meetings were prohibited bythe police. Nevertheless, some of the neighbours still wentwith their children to pray near the spot. This was the caseat 7 P.M. on December 1st. "Now the little light floateddown towards the ditch, remained stationary, and then wentout quickly. Suddenly a girl (aged 10) cried out, ‘ A bairn!a bairn! ' The apparition disappeared, but soon after two girlsexclaimed, ' The child Jesus! it is the child Jesus! ' Theywere about to hasten up to it, but the vision vanished—appeared once more, indistinctly, and again disappeared.”¹ I obtained the particulars of this affair from Dr. Lang of Grosshesselohe, Member of the Munich Section of the " Gesellschaft fürpsychologische Forschung. " While expressing my thanks to him, I mayadd that he states that the father of the two girls who first saw thevision was in a lunatic asylum, while their mother had a tendency tohysteria. The apparition might in any case have been encouraged bythe excitement of the " Culturkampf, " by the similar visions at Mar.pingen, by the special efforts made by the local priest at that time toextend the worship of the Virgin , and the great influence of the Benedictine monks who distributed pamphlets on the Marpingen visions, aswell as by theatrical performances of legends of the Virgin and Adventmysteries. The passages of the text between inverted commas arequoted from the Rev. Father Benedictus Braumüller's Kurzer Berichtüber die Erscheinungen unserer lieben Frau bei Mettenbuch.AND ILLUSIONS. 313This vision, the details of which soon became firmly fixed in thechildren's minds by questions and conversation, appeared stillmore distinctly on the following day, as soon as the childrencaught sight of the point de repère, the stump. This time thechild seemed as though about to approach them; and, soonafter, amid the prayers of those present, the principal personsand scenes comprised in the children's religious knowledgemade their appearance-the Virgin, the Crucified, Saints , etc.Five children in all shared in these visions, which lasted tillDecember 21st. Conversation with the visionary figures tookplace. " If the children asked the Virgin anything, it was notnecessary to address the question aloud to the vision; it wasenough to think of it clearly in their own minds. They receivedthe answer from a sweet voice, which was not like the voiceof any human being. And if they asked in this way, quiteseparately from each other, they all received the same answer. "(We are informed that they asked at the instigation of theirparents, so that the questions were probably fixed beforehand;that the answers should be identical is only natural. )These epidemic hallucinations unquestionably donot owe their origin to telepathy, but other " collective" hallucinations affecting a small number ofpeople (two or three) are often thus explained.¹Simpler occurrences of this kind-e.g. , the hearing ofa crash, or the like -naturally give rise to the supposition that it is a case of real, external noises.But, on the other hand, many highly complex collective hallucinations are reported which such an explanation seems insufficient to cover. The followingcase may, perhaps, contain the key to one class ofthese:-Two sisters were seated in different rooms; neither could seethe other, but both could overlook from their places differentparts of the hall. Both heard at the same time an (objective?)noise, which both attributed to the opening of the front door,' Collective hallucinations of this kind are very frequently reported,cf. , e.g. , Appendix I.314 HALLUCINATIONSas it was the hour at which their father was in the habit ofreturning from his daily walk. The one saw her father crossthe hall after entering, the other saw the dog (the usual com- panion of his walks) run past her door. It afterwards turnedout that their father had not been out at all on that day, buthad remained all the time in the dining- room with the dog. 'This case, which—in consequence of the two hallucinations being different -lacks the marvellous andexciting elements found in many other narratives,shows, precisely through this difference, that one andthe same point de repère (perhaps sense of time andobjective irritation of the sense of hearing) acted byway of suggestion on both the sisters. The twohallucinations, however, differ from each other invirtue of the difference of the connected associations.Had the association of ideas been the same, theform of the hallucination would have been identical;the process would then have been much less intelligible to the observer, and the suggesting cause asdifficult to discover as in the majority of collectivecases. At any rate, to suppose a similar connectionof ideas in both minds appears to me to be thesimplest way of explaining many ofthese cases.I have already (p. 94) pointed out another kindof simultaneous and identical, or at least similarhallucinations, produced by suggestive questions,1 Cf. supra, p. 190.2 In the Report, however, p. 325 , a plea is entered for telepathy: " On the whole, we are inclined to think that in collectivecases there is generally a combination of telepathy with suggestion byword or gesture, each helping the other; and that this is the reasonwhy the proportion of collective cases out of those in which a secondpossible percipient was present is large as compared with the proportionof successful cases of telepathy among those in which we must supposethat persons dying, or in some other crisis, have desired to communicate with their friends. "AND ILLUSIONS. 315exclamations, gestures, and the like. The ease withwhich, as we have seen, such appearances adaptthemselves in recollection makes it easy to understandhow it is that in such cases, as a rule, several percipients should assert themselves to have had exactlythe same perception, agreeing even as to the details ofdress. Podmore, in one of his articles, compares theresult of the mental process by which the severalhallucinations are moulded into uniformity to a composite photograph.The process of adaptation is most clearly shownwhen special circ*mstances cause the accounts of thevarious percipients to differ instead of agreeing witheach other. This is illustrated in the following case,which, moreover, shows how easily the recollectionof a hallucination may be modified by the simplestsuggestion shortly after its occurrence, and thereforebefore the memory- image has become fixed throughrepeated narration. Two girls stated that they hadmet a gentleman in the street and distinctly recognised him. This gentleman was afterwards discoveredto have died in his own house at that very hour.Being asked if they did not think him looking illwhen they saw him, one girl adhered to the statementthat he looked much as usual, while the other-underthe overpowering influence of the coincidence (nowsuggested to her mind) between the apparition andthe death-gave the information that the gentlemanlooked strangely pale. She had previously saidnothing of this remarkable paleness, simply becausethis was an additional element added to the memoryimage by the suggestive question.We must not, therefore, unhesitatingly cite thecomparative frequency of these cases in proof of316 HALLUCINATIONStelepathy, as though no other explanation of themwere possible.¹ That it should be just collective hallucinations which are so frequently reported as coincidental need not seem strange. If there is an actualoccurrence of simultaneous and similar ( or identical)hallucinations, such occurrence, owing to its rarity andthe degree of interest compelled by it, will naturallytend to connect itself with some other prominent event;and, conversely, the occurrence of such an event asthe death or mortal danger of a friend is mostcalculated to produce memory-delusions of this kind.Alleged Characteristic Peculiarities of TelepathicHallucinations.—I cannot attribute a greater degree ofimportance to the attempt to discover in " telepathic "hallucinations certain characteristics which testify totheir peculiar origin, and to separate them, in degree aswell as in kind, from " subjective " or " falsidical" ones.The higher degree of distinctness attributed to themarises, first, from the fact that, as a rule, the necessityfor establishing a connection only occurs when a strongimpression has been produced; while the less impressive, paler sensory delusions fade sooner, disappearfrom the memory, and can no longer be recalled whenneeded. In the second place, the actual or supposedcoincidence is sufficient to impart more relief andvividness, even to less fully externalised hallucinations. A second peculiarity ascribed to telepathichallucinations, the fecling of anxiety and uneasinesswhich accompanies them, acquires a special significance when we remember that, precisely indelusions of memory, a feeling of tension and dis1 Still more does it seem premature to indulge in hypotheses con- cerning the mechanism of telepathic action on several persons. Cf. Phantasms of the Living, ii. pp. 277 et seq.AND ILLUSIONS. 317comfort which may well influence their details, is aptto prevail.Experimentally produced Telepathic Hallucinations.-Although none of the circ*mstances hitherto discussed seem to me to afford any ground for assumingtelepathic influence, manifesting itself in the contentof hallucinations, the experimental evidence appearsto be somewhat more favourable. However, evenhere the results are not free from ambiguity. Thenumbers-far transcending all probability- of successful experiments on some persons are to bematched, on the other hand, by experiments onother persons (especially with the exclusion of allcontact) in which non- success-equally transcendingprobability—is to be recorded. One might perhapsbe as much justified in deducing from the latterseries of experiments a general law that all attemptsat thought-transference act unfavourably on guessing,as in inferring the influence of thought-transferencefrom the former series. Moreover, these experimentshave most distinctly shown how incalculably difficultit is, in such investigations, to exclude all sources1 Generally speaking, the results of those experiments in which thepercipients made drawings of the hallucinatory objects, which proved tobe similar to those produced simultaneously by the agents, are open toLehmann's objection that this similarity is based on self-deception, therough, indistinct scrawls being capable of different interpretations, andtheir points of resemblance overrated. The instance he gives, however, that, while he, as percipient, drew a cat, the drawing was foundto resemble the candlestick drawn by the agent, -is not very happilychosen. Why did he draw the cat standing on its head , the adherentsof telepathy might ask, and why did he cease drawing at the precisepoint where the resemblance ceased between the object which was inhis mind and that thought of by the agent? It might plausibly beurged that he had made the drawing under telepathic influence, butmisinterpreted the image transferred to him.318HALLUCINATIONSof error-e.g. , unconscious suggestion, number- habit,identity of associations, etc.To one of these sources of error, lately discoveredand known as " involuntary whispering," I wish tocall special attention here. I shall therefore proceedto describe a recent series of experiments bearing onthis point.¹The experimenters, F. C. Hansen and Alfred Lehmann, startedfrom the view that, if thought-transference actually exists, itmust be brought about by some known or unknown form ofenergy (e.g. , by undulatory movement of some medium). Ifthis were so, they further concluded , then it must be possible toconcentrate this, like every other undulatory movement, at asingle point, by means of concave mirrors, and, through thiscondensation and strengthening to do away with the need forhypnotising of the subject in order to produce hyperesthesia,and thus render it possible to observe the phenomena in theirown persons. If then a sufficient number of cases fulfilling theconditions could be obtained, they would thus be in a positionto discover the laws of the phenomena. In accordance with this,they placed two spherical metal mirrors, of about half a metrein diameter, facing each other, some distance apart, and satdown, back to back, each being so placed with regard to hismirror, that the thinking part of the agent and the receptiveone of the percipient (i.e. , their heads) were at the foci oftheir respective mirrors. The objects of transference werethe numbers from 10 up to 99, which, being written on counters(such as are used in the game of lotto) , were taken out of a baghaphazard by the agent.In the course of these experiments it was soon noticed thatthere was a strong tendency to innervation of the vocal muscleswhen a particular number was thought of for a long time. Inorder, therefore, to convince themselves that the hearing ofinvoluntarily whispered words had no part in the results, theagent placed his mouth and the percipient his ear, each at thefocus of his own mirror, and the former allowed free play to the1 F. C. Hansen and Alfred Lehmann, " Ueber unwillkürlichesFlüstern " (Wundt's Philosophische Studien, vol. xi. , part 4) .AND ILLUSIONS. 319(hitherto restrained) vocal movements, at the same time takingcare to keep the mouth closed so that no movements of the lipswere visible, and a bystander could not hear any sounds. Without in this place attempting to explain more in detail how, inspite of all this, real whispering might be produced, I pass atonce to the results. In the 500 experiments, in the course ofwhich each of the experimenters in turn acted as agent andpercipient, the thought- transference, now that the percipient was consciously listening, took place from five to ten times fasterthan before. 33.2 per cent. of the results were quite correct,41.2 per cent . so far correct that one of the figures was right,and only 25.6 per cent. quite wrong.Under the specialAn analysis of the failures reveals many points of interest. Itseems that every number shows, so to speak, a definite preference for certain special confusions. Thus 9 was usuallyconfused with 3 and 0, 3 with 5 and 6.arrangement followed in the experiments, these confusionscould only arise from auditory errors, and as the (Danish)numerals, when arranged according to resemblance of sound,form quite other groups, it appeared that the whispering, thatis to say, the difference between speaking aloud and whispering,must be the cause of the substitution of similar sounds. Acloser examination bears out this assumption. It appears thatthe anterior lingual vowels (Vorderzungenvocale, i , y, e, ø, æ,œ) tend to be transposed through a into the posterior (a, å, o,u), and the rounded vowels (u, o, å œ, ø, y) into the unrounded(a, æ, e, i ) . But the consonants especially are subject to changesof affinity, owing to the fact that, through the firm closing of thelips, the breathing through the nose, etc. , those characteristicswhich are most salient in ordinary speech are suppressed, andother less prominent movements, taking place behind theprincipal seat of articulation, attain more importance.The Danish authors then proceed to draw a comparison between the confusions arising from erroneous hearing in theirwhispering experiments and those of a long series of experiments in thought-transference, published in the Proceedings ofthe S.P.R. (vol . vi. , pp. 128 et seq. ), in order to show that inboth the same laws were at work in the erroneous results. Thecounter- arguments of the English authors in their account ofthe experiments do not seem to Messrs. Hansen and Lehmannto meet the point. Certainly the fact that the percipients saw320 HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS.the numbers is of no moment, because they were hypnotised,and the numbers were always spoken of in their presence asseen, so that the suggestion was given them that the numberswould appear as visual images. Moreover, the percipient'schoice of expressions in some cases indicates that the transference of ideas of number took place through the sense of hearing.Thus in the Proceedings¹ we find it noted that “ in two or threecases T. said that he saw nothing, but that something seemedto tell him that the number was so and so, but ' something 'never told him right. " The example given happens to beprecisely a very characteristic instance of confusion throughwhispering the number drawn was 66. " T. said, ' Somethingsays 37,' sixty being heard as thirty, and six as seven." 2

If such sources of error are so difficult to excludeeven in these carefully devised experiments, howmuch greater must their influence be in spontaneoushallucinations. To my mind the chief value of theseexperiments is to warn us against regarding thespontaneous cases otherwise than with distrust, andif they add to our caution in this respect I do notthink we should regard all the trouble which has beenexpended upon them as lost labour, although in faceof the evidence which they offer for telepathy, we arestill forced to say " Non liquet."1 Vol. vi. p. 158.2 At the third International Congress of Psychology, ProfessorSidgwick brought forward a series of objections to Lehmann's conclusions, and though I do not agree with him on every point, he seemsto me perfectly justified in his contention that the Danish authors havenot succeeded in showing how “ involuntary whispering " could haveoperated under the peculiar conditions present in the series of experiments recorded in the Proceedings ( vol. vi. pp. 128-170) . However,whether or not in these special cases unconscious whispering waspresent is a matter of minor importance here, since I only wish toindicate that, generally speaking, it is a source of error to be reckonedwith. Professor Sommer ( Giessen) on the same occasion delivered hislecture on " A Graphic Method of Thought- Reading," dealing withanother way of explaining telepathic phenomena.CHAPTER X.SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION.Recapitulation of Argument-All Hallucinations conditioned byDissociation-Objection to Physiological Explanationsfrom standpoint of Psychology-Criticism ofPsychologicalPosition The Physiological Scheme provisional- Bearings ofthis Study on Theories ofPerception generally.IT would be well now to review the course of ourinquiry and summarise its results. It was shownfirst that hallucinations and illusions, considered aspsychical phenomena, are just as much sensory perceptions as the so- called " objective " perceptions;that the nature of the experience is intrinsically thesame, and that a distinction can be drawn only bytheobserver—that is, only on extraneous grounds. As aconsequence of this view it was found necessary toinclude in our definition all false sensory perceptionsfrom whatever cause arising. We thus escaped thefundamental error of separating the hallucinations ofdisease from the analogous phenomena of sleep andnormal life-a course very generally pursued in thepast, which has caused hallucinations and illusions tobe regarded as something enigmatical and out of theordinary course of nature.Still it was necessary, from another point of view,to inquire into the origin of sensory deceptions and2 I322 HALLUCINATIONStheir connection with the states with which they arefound most frequently associated. For the datafurnished by observation permit of our drawingcertain conclusions as to the underlying psychicalstate, and as to the circ*mstances in which false perception occurs, and point to its being a phenomenondependent on disturbed association. The results ofthe "Census of Waking Hallucinations " point inthe same direction, and in many of the narrativesquoted in the " Report on the Census " we were ableto observe symptoms which justified the conclusionthat dissociation was present even in cases where thepercipient believed himself to be fully awake.Further, it was shown that if hallucinations occurin states of apparently accelerated association, as inmania, the excited period of circular insanity, etc. ,this arises from a misunderstanding of these states,which are really states of disturbed, and thus of partially impeded association.¹ Again, their occurrenceduring periods of apparently full consciousness is notinconsistent with this view, if we assume in such casesnot that a general disintegration of the cortical complexes takes place, but merely that certain elementgroups are split off. Such partial dissociation mayindeed be observed in other morbid phenomena,which can only be classed as sense-deceptions bystraining the term-for instance, in the case of voicesheard by the patient which really depend on automatic articulation.1 While Krafft- Ebing and Ziehen disagree with this view of Kraepelin'sstated above, the facts brought forward by Aschaffenburg in his paper," Ueber psychologische Versuche an Geisteskranken , " read before thethird Congress of Experimental Psychology, only serve to confirm it.The experiments of Dr. Forel (Jena) also tend to confirm this view.AND ILLUSIONS. 323That is to say, we are dealing here with a stateof systematic dissociation, a state in which indeed ,generally speaking, the consciousness is normal, butwhere the association- paths of a more or less complicated system of elements are wholly or partiallyblocked.Oscar Vogt supports this view, since he sees incases of waking with a systematic partial sleep ananalogy to post-hypnotic hallucinations and hallucinations of memory.1 In his opinion, in whichProfessor Forel of Zurich concurs, this state maybe confined within such narrow limits that the judgment of the persons affected remains perfectly clear,so clear, in fact, that we may trust them to makepsychological self- observations and to record themas accurately as if they had been fully awake. ( Cf. ,in the Report of the third International Congress, the1 Oscar Vogt, "Zur Kenntniss d. Wesens u. der psychologischenBedeut. d. Hypnotismus, " Zeitschr. f. Hypnotismus, etc. , iv. 1 ( 1896)." The act of waking out of certain dream-states produces, under certaincirc*mstances, a peculiar form of partial waking; for certain dreamimages are transferred to the waking consciousness. This might bedescribed as an awakening with a systematic partial sleep. Each of uscan observe faint indications of such states in his own person; thedream- content often seems real at the first moment of waking, pain feltin a dream has been known to persist into the waking state. In general,however, the re- awakening critical faculty soon banishes our credulitywith regard to the dream-image. But there are exceptions. Thusa lady of my acquaintance dreamed she saw her own funeral, orrather, she dreamed she had a vision of her own funeral as a premonition that her death was near. During the course of the dream sheawoke, but the hallucination persisted , and she recognised the variousindividuals in the funeral procession. While so doing she was sittingup in bed, and she remained awake after the desistance of the vision.Spinoza ... relates that he awoke one morning from a profound dreamand saw its phantoms so vividly before him that he tried to grasp themwith his hands as though they were real, tangible objects. . . . Heendeavoured to escape from this state by reading, but found it ex-324 HALLUCINATIONSpaper by Vogt on " Hypnotismus als psychologischeExperimental- methode," and the discussion whichfollowed . )་The several kinds of dissociation might be distinguished, by generalising Vogt's terminology,¹ intototal and partial, the latter being subdivided into-(a) Systematic partial dissociation, where asingle ideational complex is involved.(b) Localised partial dissociation, where a singlecortical centre is affected.(c) Diffused partial dissociation, where thepartial dissociation extends over a widearea.The view which we have arrived at, that false perception is perception in the state of dissociation,renders it unnecessary for us to concern ourselvesfurther with the vexed question whether or notall sensory deceptions are pathological phenomena,and if some are not so to be considered, how·tremely difficult , and it was only after a considerable time had elapsed that the phantoms finally faded away. I once observed a similarstate in myself: I was sleeping in a hotel, the window curtains wereclosely drawn, and the lights were extinguished. In the middle of thenight I awoke, my heart beating violently, under the impression that aman had entered the room by the door and was approaching my bed.In the dream I saw none of the objects in the room, but on opening myeyes I saw that the room was lighted up, and I noticed the furniture,-it was just such furniture as one would expect in such a place.Then I was struck by the brightness of the room, and it occurred to methat it might be a hallucination . Gradually the objects in the roombecame more and more indistinct, till at length they disappeared, andabsolute darkness returned. Next morning I saw that the shape andarrangement of the room were quite different, nor do I ever rememberto have seen a room arranged in quite the same way as the room of mywaking vision. ”1 Vogt, op. cit.AND ILLUSIONS. 325the non- morbid may be distinguished from themorbid.¹Most of the older writers, indeed, were concerned to show that sensory deceptions, thoughgenerally of a pathological nature, were not to beregarded as abnormal or morbid in the case of saints,prophets, philosophers, and other great men. Ouranswer to this question is simply that fallaciousperception has nothing morbid in itself, because thestate which occasions it is not a morbid one. Nevertheless, the underlying cause which induces thispsychological state may be, and frequently is,pathological. Hence diseases are frequently accompanied by numerous and varied hallucinations, whichmay therefore serve under certain conditions asindications of pathological disturbance, but in eachindividual case it is not the sense-deceptions themselves which prove the pathological condition, but theaccompanying circ*mstances.Of course no other answer to the question is possible, since, as we have already shown, all false perceptions can be classed under one type—the type,that is, to which the name " illusion was formerlygiven, and which in common usage is still so called.We found that the old distinction between hallucinaدو¹ Brierre de Boismont, op. cit. , insists with special emphasis on the existence of "hallucinations compatibles avec la raison. " Michéafollows suit in Du délire des sensations, cap. 9, and Du délire perceptifcompatible avec l'intégrité de la raison, p . 216; see also Szafkowski,op. cit. , pp. 58 et seq.; and Falret, " Cours clinique, " etc. , Gaz. des hôp.(5th Sept. , 1850); Laehr, Uber Irresein u. Irenanstalten ( 1852)(who seems to consider the percipient's recognition of the deceptionas the best test); Griesinger, op. cit.; Hagen, Die Sinnestäusch. , etc. ,pp. 271 et seq.; Krafft- Ebing, Die Sinnesdelirien, as well as nearly allthe more recent authors.326 HALLUCINATIONStion and illusion referred not so much to the originof the particular sensory deceptions, as to the possibility of discovering in their content the action ofan objective sensory stimulus, or, in other words, itreferred to the greater or less resemblance of the falseperception to the content of an " objective ” perception. By bringing into prominence the generalsimilarity of the process in all sense-deception,whether in the case of complex visions or of merelapses of perception resulting from failure of attention,we avoided the danger of classifying the phenomenaaccording to their more or less striking character.Further, in dealing with " negative hallucinations,"another class of phenomena usually distinguishedfrom true hallucinations by reason of their content, itwas shown that such a distinction was equally besidethe mark; that though a great number of the factsgrouped under this head must certainly be regardedas phenomena of deprivation ( Ausfall-Erscheinungen)-i.e., as illusions, -many others hitherto classed withthem are true hallucinations in every sense of theterm -i.e. , are conditioned by forced association.¹Thus while the old terms "hallucination " and" illusion," which usage has made familiar, are stillretained here, they have been employed in a new1 In the latest edition of his Hypnotism, Moll still maintains histheory of "inattentiveness. " What plausible explanation can he offerin cases like the following: Suppose the hypnotist says to his subject," Take a good look at this hat; it is becoming gradually smaller; it isshrinking up. See how small it appears, how microscopic! You canhardly see it at all now; it is vanishing; it has vanished altogether! "In such a case, how is it conceivable that the hypnotised subject, aftersensibly perceiving the hat gradually becoming smaller and smallerwhile the hypnotist was speaking, should, on hearing the last words,instead of realising the image of a microscopic hat shrinking intonothing, suddenly become inattentive?AND ILLUSIONS. 327sense, and made to refer to the psychologicalcharacter of the phenomena. Hitherto a differenceof origin had invariably been implied in the distinction; here no such difference of origin is implied,nor even one of quality, but merely a difference ofsystematic order. Besides this psychological definition, I have attempted to give, in terms of physiology,an account of how false perceptions arise, to indicatetheir occurrence as a link in a chain of successiveprocesses.It seems necessary here to meet an objection whichis constantly urged against such attempts to explainpsychological facts by means of physiological schemes.Neither the physical stimuli, it is urged, nor theprocesses in the nervous receiving-apparatus, whetherin the conducting nerves or in the cortical centresthemselves in a word, none of the processes withwhich physiology concerns itself—are conscious, hencethe psychic phenomena being in their nature differentfrom these processes can never be explained by them.This criticism is best met by a counter-criticism ofthe method which our critics employ in preference tothe physiological method which they condemn. Theywould place the constituent parts of consciousness inelements, described as simple sensations, ideas, feelings,impulses, etc. , whose " fusing," or " blending," or closeinteraction they suppose to be capable of evoking allstates of consciousness. When it is maintained thatsuch a method of accounting for the facts is morereasonable and more guarded than an explanationwhich depends on hypothetical processes of a physiological nature, it is indeed time to protest; for thesesimple sensations, ideas, etc. , are far less facts of experience than are the " hypothetical " brain and nerve328HALLUCINATIONSprocesses. Strictly speaking, the difference is notone of degree at all, for while the existence of suchphysiological processes can at least be indicated(though there are confused and opposing views asto their exact nature and action), experience leavesus absolutely in the dark as to the existence ofthese psychical elements and processes. Our consciousness is entirely unacquainted with any experience which we could describe as "the sensationblue," pure and simple; a sensation " blue," that isto say, without some sort of localisation , of formand extension, without feelings or emotions more orless distinct, and divorced from the consciousness ofits difference from the sensation which immediatelypreceded it (yellow, for instance), and so on.Or to cite another example, we know no emotionwithout sensational or ideational content, no desirewhich is not desire of something, no hope which isnot hope of something, no satisfaction which is notsatisfaction because of something.What we know by experience are things, bluethings, similar things, things expected, hoped for, orfeared (of course the given "thing " may be purelyimaginary); of " psychic elements " arrived at byreflection and abstraction, on the contrary, we find,among these "things " existent in the mind, no trace.This point being conceded, -and it seems hardlynecessary to labour it further, since it cannotseriously be called in question, -our position is considerably advanced.It is true the objection may be urged that thecase of the psychic " atoms " is no worse than that ofthe material ones. These, too, are known first throughtheir action, and are not a part of immediate ex-AND ILLUSIONS. 329perience, and yet (for we need not here concern.ourselves with the anti- atomistic theory) the wholematerial world is built up of them. Why, then,should we not be able just as well to build up theworld of consciousness with the psychic atoms,though these are inaccessible to experience?Nevertheless, such an objection ignores the mainpoint, ignores the claim implied in the analogy,namely, that the elements must be of like nature withtheir effects. If a psychic fact is a mere cluster ofelements, whence should it derive its nature if notfrom the nature of the elements themselves? Theatoms of which the material world is built up arematerial. Their existence does not consist in theirbeing primarily objects of consciousness. It is not acontradiction of their nature that they should remainalien to immediate experience. But the case of thepsychic atoms is very different.For the nature of all psychic facts, all experiences, all"things," consists, as I have already indicated, just intheir "Bewusstheit," in their being immediately known,felt, experienced. Or, if I may use an expression whichexcludes the otherwise unavoidable question " knownby whom?" their nature consists in their being there.¹Thus, if there are really psychic elements from whose"flocking together " the things immediately perceivedare built up, these elements must be data of theimmediate consciousness too. Nevertheless, as wehave just seen, it is precisely this quality of beingmentally present which is lacking to these elements.with which psychology occupies itself so much, with1 Of course, it is not possible to criticise here the other views as tothe nature of psychic facts, and to discuss the arguments urged againstthe view adopted above.330 HALLUCINATIONSwhich it not only seeks to describe, but to build upstates of consciousness. They cannot, therefore, beregarded as elements of known mental " things. "If they are not that, what are they then? I willstate my view shortly: they are the elements out ofwhich not the psychic fact itself, but a symbol for it,its description, is built up.For, while of course there is nothing to preventus from giving a name to each and every state ofconsciousness, labelling it in fact, it is obviouslyimpossible, through words or any other medium,to make any one else share our psychic experience in all its fulness and intimacy, to make itthe same experience for him. For if we wish tocommunicate some specific experience to another,how should we set about it? Take an illustration .Suppose I want to let a friend hear the timbre of thenote a on a particular piano, but, unfortunately, justbefore he comes, the string snaps. What shall I do?Perhaps I might strike the note g and say, " a is notlike that, but a little different." Then perhaps Imight strike b and say again, " a is not like thateither, but different." Then I might possibly let himhear the intervals c-d, d-e, f-g, and then sound g, so thathe might be able to construct the interval g-a in hismind. But all the time I should be trying to communicate the incommunicable; I should never makemy friend share my original experience by this means,for the consciousness of the interval in each of thesupposed cases is a quite specific one, different fromthe others, and none of these is identical with thatparticular fact of experience which we call the g-ainterval, still less with that experience which we had.when the note a was struck.AND ILLUSIONS. 331But what is the method which I actually employin such a case, the method which we are alwaysemploying?It may be roughly formulated as follows: thedescription of a state of consciousness consists inthe production of other specific states of consciousness quite different from the first. But that is nota full account of the method. I do not call upexperiences of any and every kind in order to describethe specific timbre of the note a. I do not pinch myfriend's arm, show him a match- box, or give him alump of sugar to suck. Nor do I sound randomnotes and intervals on the piano. I select certainnotes, certain differences -and for a very simple.reason. For, while the psychosis produced in myfriend was, say, g and b, what I experienced wassomething quite different, something which wasneither g nor b, but which might be described asthe "g-a similarity," or as the " b- a similarity. ”Moreover, in describing my experience to my friend,I evoked in him not one experience but many. IfItried to describe a state of consciousness merely byshowing a plum, nothing would be gained. If I wishedto describe a bright blue sky by producing other impressions, I should have to show my friend not onlya plum, but a blue flower such as succory or flax,point out to him an Uhlan in his blue uniform, bidhim look up at the ceiling of the room and then atthe bright blue eyes of his child, etc. Whether allthis would serve my purpose is a question whichneed not be answered here. But what do I experience during this description? I experience the skyplum similarity, the sky-uniform similarity, the skyeye similarity, but I experience something more,332 HALLUCINATIONSthe consciousness, to wit, of a common attributein a series of similars, and this mental state islabelled in our speech with certain specific terms.For instance, the feeling of similarity which runsthrough the series of similars " sky- eye," " skyplum," " sky-uniform," we call blue, that in theseries " sky- upward glance," " sky- ceiling of theroom," we call high, or above us.bWhat is it I do then when I describe an experienceas blue, calm, and above us? I mention a number ofstates which succeeded each other in me, and whichwe may therefore describe as " a series of resemblanceexperiences. " But these namings correspond, to returnto the old illustration , to my experience when the notesg and were struck. In my former experience a,which I tried to describe by g and b, I was consciousof a only, and not of the g-a similarity nor of the b-asimilarity, which are neither identical with a nor partsofit. And just as certainly as the experience a did notarise from the combination of the b-a similarity andthe g-a similarity, so does the idea “ sky” not arise outof a combination of the ideas " blue," " above us," etc.This is but a crude comparison, but perhaps illustrates my meaning better than a long explanation.A psychology which regards the elements of the description, the symbol of the experience, as elementsof the thing itself, proceeds as though one shouldmaintain that the sound could be built up of theelements of its symbol, the letter i—that is to say, outof a short upright line and a dot.From what has been said it follows that we canuse the expressions which describe the qualities ofthe different psychic facts only while we are regarding them with reference to their likeness to or differ-AND ILLUSIONS. 333ence from others which resemble them-that is tosay, only in so far as we are dealing with theirmorphology, or are employed in building up systemsaccording to definite principles, and classifying thespecific states as plants are classified in the Linnæansystem.But these elements of qualitative description are nolonger applicable when we cease to deal with thephenomena of consciousness as series of similars andproceed to study them with reference to causality.By this expression I do not mean to indicate theview which regards the phenomena of consciousnessas symbols of a world existing independently of us,of which they are the reflections in our subjectivity.Such a view has nothing to do with experience, andis of course purely speculative. By a causal view ofmental phenomena I mean the view which arrangesthoughts or feelings " (¿.e. , mental states) in asequence, following in time; which seeks to expressin a simple formula our experience of the successivecharacter of individual " states of feeling," and ourexpectation that after a particular succession of"feelings " a certain other " feeling " will follow.Certainly no one will deny that for one class ofpsychic phenomena, for sensory perceptions, theformulæ to which we have reduced our expectationof their successive occurrence are the formulæ ofmechanics which underlie the physical, chemical, andphysiological explanation of an experience. And ifthis is granted there is nothing in the nature of thecase which prevents us from applying the samemethod of explanation to any other groups of mentalphenomena (ideas, feelings, etc.). The principalargument urged against such a proceeding rests, as334 HALLUCINATIONSwe have already seen, on the fact that the physiological processes adduced in explanation are not"psychic facts," and that therefore we cannot explainby them facts which differ from them in kind; butthis objection is based on a confusion of theworld of matter, that is to say, of the formula bywhich we express our expectation of seeing certainstates of feeling follow each other in time, with theworld of "things in themselves." The other objection, that our knowledge of brain- processes is fartoo limited for us to be able to explain psychicfacts by them, has nothing to do with the principleinvolved. It may be met by pointing out that there isa whole group of such facts, to wit, sense- perceptions,for which no psychological explanation can be found,and that any physiological explanation is onlymeant as a formula, to be amended by each newexperience, as a scheme to which we reduce our pastexperiences.¹Nor did my explanation pretend to be anything more than such a scheme, into which all ourformer experience relating to false perceptions maybe made to fit. But such a scheme only appearedpracticable if we distinguished more sharply than hadbeen done heretofore three aspects of the phenomenon: ( 1 ) its sensory character; (2) the falsity ofthe perception; (3 ) the content of the hallucination.1 The question, so hotly discussed at the Third International Congressof Psychology ( see pp. 68-73 of the Congress Report) , as to whetherand how far psychic facts admit of a physiological explanation mayaccordingly be answered as follows: Psychology, and psychology only,furnishes the facts to be explained, since it sifts, by careful analysis, thematerial from the surrounding dross; but , on the other hand, the causalexplanation of the phenomena necessarily devolves upon physiology, or,to use the wider term, upon Natural Science.AND ILLUSIONS. 335It seemed simplest to refer the sensory character tothe same cause which is assumed in all other sensorystates of consciousness; the falsity of the perceptionwe traced to the circ*mstance that in any perceptthe corresponding brain - process does not dependupon the incoming stimuli alone, but also upon thestate of the reacting brain; and the specific character, the " content, " of each individual false perceptwe referred to the elements to whose activity were duethe special tension- relations in the brain state. Or, toexpress it otherwise, we found that a false perceptionoccurs when for some reason or other (Chap. VI. )the cerebral elements are in such a state of tensionthat the incoming stimuli ( Chap. V.) stream towardselement-groups which normally would be dischargedonly by stimuli of another kind (Chap. VII. ).Passing over the subject of the characteristics ofhallucinations considered in Chapter VIII. , and thequestion thereafter discussed, whether the content ofcertain sensory deceptions is “ telepathically " caused,¹I will in conclusion briefly advert to the importantpart played by the study of hallucinations in otherinquiries. It would lead us too far to discuss hereits bearing on Erkenntnisstheorie and metaphysics,but I should like to indicate the importance of ourpresent inquiry in relation to the very complexprocesses and the many factors associated in theproduction of sensory perception.In the following discussion we shall be dealing, itis true, with certain anomalies of perception which1 As the proofs of this chapter are being corrected I receivedMorselli's work, I Fenomeni telepatici e le allucinazioni veridiche, and feel bound to call the reader's attention to the arguments against telepathy on pp. 15 et seq. , an excellent piece of methodical criticism .336 HALLUCINATIONSwere excluded by the definition at the beginning ofthe book-that is to say, with perceptions commonto all persons alike, though they demonstrably donot correspond to the objective facts. Of course suchpercepts are just as much " false " as the idiosyncraticones to which, for the sake of simplicity, our inquiryhas hitherto been confined, and it seems to me animportant argument in favour of the theory of falseperception here advanced that these universal fallaciesfall quite naturally into the scheme suggested for theindividual ones.For in these universal fallacies also the stimulusmust be supposed to reach and discharge groups ofcortical elements, whose activity is normally onlyassociated with a stimulus then lacking, whilst otherelement - groups usually aroused by the incomingstimulus are excluded from the process, or participatein it but slightly, because the main stimulus- wave isdiverted into another path.But whilst in sensory deceptions which occur individually and sporadically the factor which leads to thediversion of the stimulus-wave from its normal path-what we have called " enforced association " -is anoccasional one, in the case of universal fallacies ofperception the cause must, of course, be constantand universal. Hence we must assume that theenforced association does not, as in individual sensedeceptions, depend upon the momentary cerebrostatic condition, but that it is brought about becausethe elements in question have been frequently andstrongly excited simultaneously with the elementsnow stimulated, so that habit has deepened the interconnecting channels and the resistance in them isfeeble—that is, they are always wide open. For it isAND ILLUSIONS. 337only on some such assumption, only by referring theenforced association to the to the organisation of thenervous apparatus built up through regularly recurring physiological activity, that we can satisfactorilyexplain these universal fallacies of perception.But if this is the case we shall find this class ofdeceptive phenomena of special value in elucidatingthe organisation of the nervous apparatus and itsfunctioning. For if certain element-groups are foundto participate in false perceptions of this class wemust, according to our theory, infer their co-operationin similar normal " objective " perception, since it isonly to this constant and habitual co-operation thatthey can owe their participation in the stimulus- wavein false perception.As an illustration of how false perceptions may beused in such a way I will refer shortly to a cognateinquiry,¹ although indeed the deceptive phenomenawith which it deals are not, strictly speaking, hallucinations and illusions. They serve, however, toillustrate the fact frequently referred to in thecourse of our inquiry, that the explosion of brainelements from which wide- open paths of associationlead to other elements produce in the consciousnessonly states of feeble intensity and vice versa.Seashore starts from the known fact that an object whensupposed to be lighter than it really is, feels when lifted heavierthan the reality, and one of which the weight has been over- estimated beforehand feels lighter than it actually is. He had1 Seashore , " Measurements of Illusions and Hallucinations inNormal Life, " Studies Yale Psych. Lab. , 1895 ( iii. ) , pp. 1-67.2 He cites, loc. cit. , Gilbert, " Researches on the Mental and Phys.Development of School Children, " Studies Yale Psych. Lab. , 1894, ii .43-45, 59-63; Dresslar, " Stud. in the Psychol. of Touch, " Amer.22338HALLUCINATIONStwo sets of cylindrical blocks made, each set consisting of17 pieces. All the 34 cylinders were of the same material, the same height, and painted the same dull black colour. Thecylinders of the first series, A, were also of uniform weight ( 80gramm. ), but differed in bulk as their diameter increased, ingeometrical ratio, always by 1-10th ( from 20-91.9 mm. ) . Thecylinders of the second series, B, on the other hand, were allexactly the same size and therefore appeared all exactly the same to the eye. They differed in weight, however, eachsuccessive block being 5 gramm. heavier than the preceding one(diameter 42.9 mm.; weight, 40-120 gramm. ) .The subjects of the experiment were made acquainted withthe peculiarities of series B, but left in the dark as to therelative weights of series A. They were requested to selectfor each weight in set A a corresponding one in set Bby takingone at a time from A and placing it by the side of successiveblocks in B, lifting one of these at a time until the one wasfound which seemed to have the same weight as the block fromA. The average of twenty-five experiments yielded the following figures:--A. 20 B. II0.2 C.- 22.9 D. M.V.+ 30.2 7.5 22 103.8 - 20.9 +23.8 7.024.2 98.2 - 18.7 +18.2 5.0 26.6 94.4 - 16.3 +14.4 6.529.3 94.0 - 13.6 + 14.0 6.532.2 89.2 - 10.7 + 9.2 8.035.4 86.3- 7.5 + 6.3 5.039.0 85.4 - 3.9 + 5.4 4.042.9 83.8 O + 3.8 6.047.2 80.4 + 4.3 + 0.4 5.051.9 75.6 + 9.0 - 4.4 4.057.1 71.662.8 69.0+14.2+19.9-- 8.4 5.5 - II.O 6.5Psych. Journ. , 1894, vi. 313; Charpentier, " Analyse d. quelq élém. de 1. sensation d. poids, " Archives de Physiol. , 1891 ( 5) , iii. 126;Müller and Schuhmann, " Über d. psychol . Grundl. d . Vergl. gehobenerGewichte, " Arch. d. ges. Physiol. ( Pflüger), 1889, xlv. 37; Griffing," On the Sensations of Pressure and Impact, " Psychol. Rev. , 1895 , ii. ,Suppl. i .; Flournoy, " De l'influence de la perception visuelle descorps sur leur poids apparent, ” L'année Psychol. , 1894, i . 198.AND ILLUSIONS. 339A. B. C. D. M.V.69. I 65.8 +26.2 - 14.2 6.576.0 64.2 +33. I -15.8 6.583.6 61.2 +40.7 - 18.8 6.091.9 58.6 +49.0 21.4 6.5A diameter ofthe block in set A (having weight of 80 gr. ).B=weight of the block in set B (having a diameter of 42.9 mm. ),chosen as equal in weight to the block of set A.C=number of millimet. by which the diameter in set A differed fromthat in set B.D=grammes by which the estimated weight of the block in set Adiffered from its true weight.M. V. =mean variation; to obtain the mean variation of the series,each result is to be divided by five.From these results may be deduced a law holding goodwithin a limited range with regard to the influence of visualperceptions of size upon our perceptions of weight-viz. , thatobjects of similar material and of the same weight which differin size are when lifted felt to be of different weight, the smaller being over- estimated and the larger under- estimated. Theintensity of the false perceptions varies directly with the perceived amount of difference in size between the bodies compared-that is to say (according to Weber's law) , increases in arithmetical progression, while the objective difference in size risesin geometrical ratio.Further series of experiments, the discussion of which indetail would lead us too far, show that even in frequentlyrepeated trials the deceptions remain fixed, and even persist,though certainly in a somewhat lesser degree, when the actualrelations of weight and the nature of the illusion are known tothe subjects.Seashore accounts for these hallucinations of weight by thefact that one of the factors which co-operates in perceptionsof weight stands out in an unnatural relation . In theforegoing cases we have to do with the perception of size,which plays a part in the preliminary estimate of the weightthat is to say in the accommodation of the muscular liftingapparatus, since the bulk decides for us the difference of weightbetween two bodies which otherwise look the same, and therefore seem to be made of the same material. If our estimate of340 HALLUCINATIONSthe weight of a body = w is not correct, and if to lift it we finda greater effort w +d necessary, then this addition of d to w,since it occurs in an unusual relation, is over- valued. Weperceive with abnormal intensity the force actually spent,w +d, and the weight of the body which had been underestimated is over- valued. If, on the other hand, we have overestimated the weight, and if the actual output of force is w - d,then dis over-valued, and the residuum w - d under- valued,that is to say the body which was judged to be heavier feelslighter than it actually is. This effect is so apparent in theexperiments cited above that the smallest body of the series A,with a diameter of 20 millimetres, was felt to weigh aboutdouble as much as the largest block of 91.9 mm. diameter,which actually weighed the same.The persistence of the deception in cases where the subjectshad been told all the conditions of the experiments is due tothe fact that a definite kind of association had become anorganic habit, which the newly acquired knowledge was powerless to counteract. "Size has ever before been influential indetermining weight, therefore relatively it cannot be suppressed.This is not a sign of weakness in discrimination or judgment,it is the working principle of those whom we consider mostintelligent. That feeling of interest which sight commands ispersistent . . . and in the ordinary flow of conscious activity itis almost impossible to muster force to dam it up. ”This example shows clearly how such deceptionsmay demonstrate the importance in certain perceptions of factors whose influence is usually overlooked.The method is of course not new. A whole seriesof psychological experiments is founded upon it.For instance, to note here one other work of thesame class, I may mention Lipps' treatise onEsthetischen Eindruck und Optische Täuschung,¹ inwhich the geometric- optical deceptions (compare, e.g.,above p. 5 ) are referred to the co-operation of ideas1 Which appeared in the Schriften der Gesellschaft für Psychol.Forschung, vol. 9-10.AND ILLUSIONS. 341of mechanical activity in the perceptions, the importance of these ideas in our perception of form isemphasised, and an æsthetic of spatial forms ( especially in architecture and keramic art) based upon it.I need not, however, dwell further upon the way inwhich these universal fallacies may be employed toelucidate the normal process of perception; the example which I have given above sufficiently illustratesthe principle involved. Of course such a practicalapplication is conceivable only on the view maintained in the present work-the view, that is, whichregards false perception as none the less perceptionbecause modified by the co- operation of unwontedelements, or by the non- co-operation of those whichnormally share in the process, which regards it assubject to the same laws which govern all otherperception, and not as an abnormal phenomenonwhich sets all law at defiance.

}APPENDIX 1.In the following pages, the narratives of waking hallucinationscollected under the direction of Baron von Schrenck- Notzingare published for the first time. The cases are so arrangedas to correspond exactly with Table II. c. ( see p. 366) .The Roman figure prefixed to each narrative indicatesthe page of the collection on which each narrator hasanswered in the affirmative the question whether he hasexperienced a waking hallucination. The Arabic figureindicates the line on that page on which his name, age,etc. , are to be found. The narratives which deal withmore than one case are divided, and the individual casesdenoted by letters —A, B, C.¹In conclusion, a few narratives, received at the same time,dealing with presentiments, prophetic dreams, etc. , have beenadded.VISUAL HALLUCINATIONS.V. 18. C. Frau. K.-" In December 1886 I was awakenedone night by my children. . . . I attended to them, and laydown again. Suddenly there was a nun standing before mybed-the sewing-teacher in the Deaf and Dumb Institute atHohenwart, in Upper Bavaria, -just as I had known her inlife, quite unchanged, and kindly. She did not speak. Isaw the apparition, by the night-light, only for a moment.I was in good health and free from excitement.remained awake for some hours longer, and reflected asto what this could mean, thinking that perhaps somethingI1 The original narratives are preserved in the reports of the ( Munich)Psychological Society, where they can be examined on application, if desired.344 APPENDIX.had happened to her. But these thoughts were occasionedonly by the vision. Two days after I heard that thesewing- teacher had died of blood-poisoning (in consequence of an injury to her foot) at the precise hour whenI saw the vision . I made special inquiries on this point.I had no knowledge whatever of her illness, but believedher to be quite well.. I told this occurrence to severalpeople, my husband among them, before the news reachedus. " (Herr K. gives verbal confirmation of his wife havingspoken to him about the vision, but cannot remember theexact time. )X. 13. B. El. Pa. -See above, p. 247.X. 14. B. Martha Bl.-"When mymotherwas dangerouslyill, in July 1887, at Munich ( M . strasse, 5), I saw herfigure at the bedside, undressed, when I was lying awake inbed, looking just as she did in life. A week later the deathwe were expecting took place. I had previously related thisoccurrence to my father. "XXIII. A. v. M. —See p. 99.XXVIII. Louise H., Meiningen.-" In the early days ofNovember 1881 I had gone to bed as usual, one evening,about ten o'clock. My mother, eighty-four years of age, wasalready asleep in my bedroom; a night-light was burning.I lay down in bed fully awake, and had scarcely been inthat position a few seconds, wide awake, and with my eyesopen, when I heard a peculiar crackling sound in the sittingroom, and suddenly saw it brightly lit up, although I hadmyself extinguished the petroleum lamp on going to bed.In the doorway between the two rooms stood my sisterChristel, married to the insurance-agent, Br , at Erfurt,and at that time very ill with cancer in the breast. She hadon an indoor dress of printed calico, and came towards mybed, stretching out her hands. In my consternation I calledmy mother, as loud as I could, but was unable to awakenher, and then the image of my sister disappeared. Shedied a few days after, or it may have been on the same day.may mention that, in order to get into the sitting-room,any one would have to pass through the bedroom first .had known for years that my sister was suffering fromcancer, but had not on that day been specially worried or excited."IIXXXI. A. Sophie T.- " In December 1867 I saw myAPPENDIX. 345husband (then on his death- bed) come in his dressinggown out of the bedroom into the room where I was justpreparing him some lemonade and milk. He nodded tome, pointed to a certain spot, and disappeared. I hastened to his bedside with the drink, and found him quietly sleeping. He had not been up at all. "XXXI. B. Sophie T.-" It was at the end of October 1867.Our house adjoined a garden about one and a half acres in extent. Dinner was ready at 1 P.M., when I saw my husbandstrollingdown thegarden inthe opposite direction to thehouseI went to the window and took hold of the bolt to open it.I was just going to call to him, when I looked sideways intothe room, and saw my husband sitting comfortably in thesame room, between the second window and the stove,holding a newspaper in his hand. I called out, ‘ Oh! youare here? ' ' Did you think I was outside? I have notbeen in the garden, ' was his reply. I must also add thatour little dog, whom I had seen in the garden trotting alongbehind my husband, was lying stretched out under his chair,and while we were speaking, slowly got up, stretched himself, and yawned. It would have been impossible for myhusband, in the short time that had elapsed between myseeing him in the garden and finding him seated in theroom with the newspaper, to have traversed a long piece ofthe garden path and two large rooms. "XXXI. D. Sophie T.-"At the beginning of August I wasvisiting some relatives at Berlin. Having to go somedistance by tram-car, I saw, for the space of some seconds,my son, who lives at Düsseldorf, sitting beside me.happened to me twice during the short time I was atBerlin."ThisXXXVII. Anna Schm.— “ Early in the morning, while stillin bed, I suddenly saw (I believe I was fully awake) thefigure of my mother, who had died two years before. (Sheoften appears to me in dreams and when half asleep, butnever so distinctly as on this occasion. ) She was holdingmy child, then still living and in good health, by the hand.On my addressing it, the figure vanished as quickly as ithad appeared. I had this hallucination between half- pastfour and five on the morning of December 2nd, 1889.”XXXIX. A. Josephine Schm. -See p. 101 , Note 1 .III. 22. B. Louise Eder.-"Five months after mymother's346 APPENDIX.death, in 1887 , I was lying awake in bed and thinkingof our removal from the house, which was to take placeshortly. Suddenly I saw my mother standing before thebed, looking exactly as she had done in life, but dressed ina chemise only. She said nothing, and soon disappeared.At first she stood near the head of the bed, then near thefoot. I felt my breath oppressed, as in nightmare. I closedmy eyes, and only saw her more distinctly. When I opened them she was standing beside me. The room at the sametime looked like a large hall. "IV. 18. V. G.-See p. 100.X. 13. A. Elizabeth Pa. -See p. 247.XXXI. C. Sophie T.- " My nephew, who died at Berlinin January 1881 , appeared to me, here in Düsseldorf, in theHofgarten. He walked beside me for a few seconds.When I called him by name-' Otto ' -the phantomvanished. (One forenoon in the autumn of 1888). "XXXV. B. Frau M. Cla.-" After the death of a belovedsister, I used to take long walks alone. As I walked along,lost in thought, mostly in broad daylight, it often seemed tome as if she were gliding along beside me, at a distance of about two metres. She looked quite calm, cheerful, andbeautiful, but the image was a very unsubstantial one.The only definite thing about it was the expression of theface, and if I ventured to look straight at the apparition thewhole thing disappeared."XXIV. D. Louise Han.-" Seven years ago, in the springof 1882, I saw a poor man who vanished when I was justabout to give him an alms. "XXXV. C. Frau M. Cla. - "When a girl of seventeen, Iwas on a visit to a friend in a Danish town. There had beena family gathering, and the house was full of visitors, sothat for the first few nights I had to share my friend's room.After the guests had left, one of the spare rooms in the sidewing ofthe house was assigned to me. At night I went tobed as usual, but omitted to lock the door. Soon after Ihad put out the light the door opened, a woman came inwith a lighted candle, and kept on looking at me; shecame up to the table which stood facing the bed, and overwhich hung a large mirror. I could see in the mirror theface of the woman, who continued to look fixedly at me;then she turned round and went out of the room withoutREEOF 18UNIVERSITYAPPENDIX.OFCALIFORNIA 347saying a word. I sat upright in bed. I have seen all theservants in the house, and know that the woman was notone of them. The incident had no after-significance forme. "XXVII. G. W. saw " in a hotel at Wiesbaden an elderlywoman dressed like a servant, who gazed fixedly at me,standing at the door just in front of the lock. Though thewhole figure, its dress and features, were plainly visible, yetit was completely transparent, so that I could also seethe door-handle and the door itself behind it.broad daylight, I was sitting up in bed, and am firmlyconvinced that I was wide awake and in possession of allmy faculties. The apparition lasted about half a minute,and then disappeared."XXXIX. B. Josephine Schm.-- See p. 101.It wasXXIV. C. Louise Han.- "When a child of seven oreight, I once saw a face which looked at me sadly, and atwhich I gazed full of curiosity. But when I told my motherof it, she tried to convince me that I had been mistaken .Nevertheless, I have been unable to forget it to this day."XXXV. A. Frau M. Cla. (abridged) .—While beingescorted home by a friend of her husband's, she saw, bythe moonlight, a man's face in the window of her house,which was thickly overgrown with vines. On coming intothe room and striking a light, she saw nothing more, butlater, coming out of her bedroom into the dark room,the face ("it was more a face than a figure ") wasseated in the arm-chair in the moonlight. She overcameher fear and seated herself in the arm-chair, and then theshape vanished without reappearing.XXVI. Ivan Plesničar, of the Servian army medical service(refers to Licht, mehr Licht, vol. ii . 42 , 51 , vol . iii. 37 ) .—"The figure of a tall old man, with a flowing beard andvenerable countenance, in a grey toga with wide sleeves,seemed to lift out the window-frame and appear floating inits place, and gave me to understand, by gesture andmotions (the right hand holding up a cross before me at adistance of about two metres) , that I was to change the courseof my life, which so far had been entirely given up to selfindulgence. I received an impression which up to thepresent time has proved indelible. Up to that time I wasa materialist, and social enjoyments were my heaven."348 APPENDIX.(The narrator continues, in reference to a series of otherhallucinations of which no details are given, " Sometimesother gentlemen were present, but they had not the slightestperception of what I saw. ")next room.XXXI. C. Sophie T. -Detailed account of the vision ofan angel seen by her when standing by the bedside of herdying child. The two elder children were playing in theShe was just repeating a Paternoster (it beingthe hour for service in church) when, after three taps with awillow wand, the angel (a wingless figure) appeared, bentover the child, and vanished. Her husband, entering theroom immediately afterwards, remarked on her ecstaticexpression. The child died in twenty-four hours.XVI. 2. B. Captain Ko. (retired from the army) . "OnOctober 25th or 26th, 1887, about 7 P.M., I was driving totea with a friend after my usual dinner. I got out of thecarriage, and remained standing in front of the little churchof Schw. , while my companion entered a house in the neighbourhood. I knew that my mother was ill, and feared thather condition might become more serious, but did notexpect the worst. ( In another place the narrator speaks of' expecting an improvement. ') Then I suddenly saw a blackball ( of the size of a small balloon) rising up into the clearsky above the roof ofthe church. As it rose higher it lessenedin size, and vanished in the direction of the moon, then, Ithink, in the first quarter, with one star above it (Venus). Myfeelings at the same time were extremely unpleasant; my consciousness was quite clear, but filled with the idea, ' Somemisfortune is happening. ' While I had not previously feltanxious, and my state of mind was, on other grounds, evena cheerful one, my first thought, of course, on seeingthis appearance was of my mother, and this gave riseto uneasy, anxious feelings, so that later on, in companywith my friends, it required an effort to control myself.Next day I found that my mother's condition had changedfor the worse, and that she was unconscious; and onOctober 9th she died. "HALLUCINATIONS AFFECTING MORE THAN ONE SENSE.XXIV. A. Louise Han. -See p. 238, Note 1 .XXIX. See p. 280.APPENDIX. 349IX. 17. FrauBö. -On Monday, September23rd, 1889,between1 and2 A.M. , FrauB. hearda moaningandlamentingoutsideherbedroom, immediatelyunderthewindowlookingon the Ka..strasse, in whichthe Realschuleis situated. Shewas goingto call herhusband, but he wasfastasleep. She was thenaboutto pullthe bed- clothestowakenhim, when, at thesamemoment, shesawa whitefigure("somethingwhite, whichshetookfor a figure")floatthroughtheroom, whereuponshe hid herselfunderthe bed-clothes. In themorningshe relatedthe occurrenceto her husband, wholaughedat her. She, however, thoughtsomeonemusthavedied, probablyher niece, whomsheknewto be ill. About9.30A.M.therearriveda telegramfromMunichannouncingthe seriousillnessof Chr. Schm. ,a masterat theRealschule. FrauB. immediatelysaid," He will die. " Soontherearriveda secondtelegramwithnewsof the deathof the gentlemanin question.P.S. -Herr Schm. , before his departure in June, had handed over to Herr B. and his wife the sum of severalhundred marks to take care of for him during his absence.XV. 10. Dr. H. Gr. —See p. 96.XXX. B. G. Wit. (schoolmaster) .—“ I was again in bed,three months later than the above occurrence (see XXX.A.), when suddenly I felt a violent blast of air on theright side. Then I felt a magnetic current pass from myhead to my feet; I turned over on my other side and said,' Now magnetise me on the left side too. ' This was done.Then I laid myself on my back, and felt a strong current passing from head to foot. In a few minutes there wasan appearance of luminosity, a patch of light, the lengthand breadth of my bed, reaching up to the ceiling of theroom. A man's figure, which looked copper- coloured,appeared on the right side of the bed. He looked at meand I at him. No conversation took place. I was notafraid, but ordered the figure to withdraw, which he immediately did. The light also vanished with the figure.wife was with me in the room, but she noticed nothing. "MyI. 13. Magd. Sp.-" I saw my mother after her deathfour weeks after the funeral (she died about Shrovetide,1860). I was then living at Gundelfingen with my family.At first I saw a white dove every night for a week.flew about in front of the window, appearing at twelveIt350 APPENDIX.precisely, and staying till five A.M. I could hear thefluttering; my sister saw the dove as well. After thisappearance had ceased we heard footsteps; once, at midnight, the door opened of itself. We were sitting up, becausewe had been excited by the various noises. My motherentered, fully visible, in the clothes in which she had beenburied. She lay down beside my sister and myself. (Wewere sleeping in the same bed, in the room she had diedin. ) She remained there till five; we had the feeling as ifa corpse were lying beside us, and were so much frightenedthat we could not get out of the bed. This was repeatedevery night for a week. [ When she went away?] we saw her go round the house. Whenever the church bell rangshe slammed the door violently. In the last night wequestioned her; she asked us to have a mass said. Thiswas done and she appeared no more. My brother (thenbetween twenty and thirty years of age and in the army)arrived one morning early and saw [and heard] mymother bustling about in the yard. " (The two witnesses mentioned are no longer living. )AUDITORY HALLUCINATIONS (VOICES).V. 17. Josepha Wa.- " When my husband died, onJanuary 16th, 1873 , and his corpse was still lying un- buried in the mortuary, I heard in the night of the 17th,about 10 P.M., a voice call three times, ' Pepi.'¹ I awokeat the first call, and hearing it twice loudly repeated, I rose,thinking my father was calling me, and went to him.had heard nothing.. . . He came, as I was afraid, and watched beside me. I was suffering at the time fromheadache and toothache, but otherwise quite healthy; Iwas also overwhelmed with grief at the death of my husband."HeIX. 18. A. U. (schoolmaster. ) —" My wife died on April3rd, 1887 , at 12.45 A.M. On awakening early-perhaps at6 or 7 A.M. - I quite distinctly heard her dear voicecalling me by name, ' August, ' as if she wished to comfortme."XVI. 2. A. Captain Ko. (retired) .— See p. 98.1 Familiar abbreviation of Josepha.APPENDIX. 351XXX. C. G. Wit. (schoolmaster).-"In my young days Iwas called quite loudly one afternoon. On immediateinquiry I found that no one had called me. The voicewas extremely loud and vigorous. It was not the voice ofa human being. This took place at 2 P.M. I had laindown for a siesta, on a day when there was no afternoonschool. "the V. 19. A. Therese Fo.- " In November 1878 I heard,from my bed in our house at Munich, at 5 A.M. ,singing of birds, as though it were spring. I was wideawake, quite healthy, free from excitement, and wonderedat this unaccountable occurrence. Several hours later wereceived a telegram informing us that a cousin with whomwe were very intimate . . . had died unexpectedly thatmorning at five precisely. We had not been thinking of him at the time."IX. 14. B. Schm. Fr. (Government schoolmaster. ) —Inthe year 1869 he was frequently in X. on business connectedwith the erection of a church in that place. X. wasa village some nine miles distant, in a north- westerlydirection, from B. Near this village is a quarry, and justabove it stands a tree, past which the footpath leads. Ashe was passing this tree one day at noon, no one else beingin the neighbourhood, he heard a loud sneezing. Thesound appeared to proceed from the depths below the tree.He thought that there might be some one in the quarry andpassed on. When he, some time after, again took the sameroad he again heard the same loud sound of sneezing.This excited his attention. At midnight of the same dayhe passed the same spot with the clergyman who thenofficiated in X.; again the mysterious sneezing. Schm. Fr.called the clergyman's attention to it, who then told himthat he had often heard it both by day and by night, andnot he alone, but all, from the oldest man to the youngestchild in his congregation; that it was well known in theneighbourhood. The saying ran that here a poor soul was imprisoned and was waiting for deliverance. A little lateron Coll. Schm. Fr. again passed the tree.This time, asbefore, no one was near. He was deep in thought about theplans of the church and did not remember the hauntedspot. Suddenly he again heard loud, vigorous sneezing.He said fearlessly, " God help thee and me." Quite352 APPENDIX.distinctly he heard, as from the depths, " Thank God. "And since then the sneezing has not been heard.AUDITORY HALLUCINATIONS ( Noises, etc.) .II. 3. Math. G.-"I heardin myhouse, aboutthreeweeksago, at half-pastninein theevening, threeraps, fivetimesrepeated, uponthetable. I waslyingin bedhalfasleep, butat thefirstsoundbecamewideawake, andthenheardtherapsin succession. . . . I thoughtit wasa manifestation, becausetherapswereat regularintervals. OnthefollowingdayI learntthata relativeof mine, livinginserviceat Donauwörth, haddiedat thesamehour. In lifeI hadknownherintimately(hadbeenin lovewithher).Myuncleat oncecommunicatedwithme. . . . WhenIheardthetapsI didnotthinkof theyounggirl, forthoughshehadbeenin ill-healthforsixmonths, herdeathwasnotexpected. Shewastwenty-oneyearsof age. Twogirlsweresleepingin theroomnextmine

one

of them, herniece(a seamstress) , heardthesamesounds."III. 22. A. Louise Ed.-" Towards two o'clock onemorning in May 1888, Herbststrasse, No. 7, II. , myhusband and I heard a glass door being broken into, andcould distinguish the sound of the fragments of glass fallingand breaking. We simultaneously awoke and got up. He exclaimed, ' What is the meaning of this? ' We foundnothing broken; indeed, there was no glass door in the house. Three weeks after this occurrence my father unexpectedly died of inflammation of the lungs, after keepinghis bed for six days. At the time when we heard the noisemy father was quite well, and lived in the country at Simbach, but always had a great longing to see us and thechildren. Since my father's death I have often seen him in dreams but without any special significance. I ama great dreamer. Once I dreamt that my son had diedat sea. I wrote to him and found it untrue."III. 23. Simon Ed. -Compare p. 276 (the same caseas III. 22. A.).V. I. Maria G.- "In the summer of 1880 I was lyingawake in bed, alone in my room, in my parents' house inL. About midnight, without any apparent cause, thedoor flew wide open, so that I could see into the passage.APPENDIX. 353Awakened by the sound ofthe door, I did not go to sleepagain. Thereupon I heard heavy footsteps, going first along the passage, then up the stairs. I struck a light and hastenedout, but found no one. At the same hour my favouriteaunt, who was seventy years old, died in a house not ten minutes' walk from our own, without any possibility of ourhaving been able to foresee or expect her death. I onlylearnt the news on the following day, and had not been thinking of her during the night. '"•V. 18. A. Frau K.-" On the 27th of December 1876,at half-past two in the afternoon, I was in my kitchen at the Deafand Dumb Asylum in B- I was unmarried at thetime. Suddenly I heard beside me the splashing of water,for which I could discover no cause. The sound continued,at intervals, for an hour ( from 1.30 to 2.30) . On the sameday I learnt that my sister (twenty-four years old) had died,at the time already mentioned, in a hospital in Munich, ofheart disease, without my having any idea of her danger,for the last reports had been favourable. When I heardthe sound it did not trouble me, and I did not think of my sister. "66 One afternoon in the November of 1886 I was alone inmy room (I was then married), when, between four and fiveo'clock, I heard a sound as of a heavy body falling besideme, like a rap, only sounding once. In the evening Ilearnt that my friend, the Rev. Dr. Wagner, had died atexactly the time mentioned, at the age of seventy- fouryears. They had been fearing a repetition of a stroke.[Still ] I did not know that on that same afternoon he had had a seizure, and had succumbed to it . "V. 19. B. Theresa Fo.—" My husband died on the 15thNovember 1881. On the preceding night I heard a loudcracking sound in my house (at Neuhausen, near Munich) ,which I could not account for in any imaginable way, forit was much louder than the creaking of furniture . Myhusband was lying ill in bed, and heard it too.I waswell, not at all excited [? ] , and wide awake.frightened. The day after my husband died."I was muchIX. 14. A. —A Government schoolmaster (Schm. Fr. ) ,while studying at the former Polytechnic School at N--,sat up to study one night-January 1846 -and did not goto bed until I A.M. He could not sleep until nearly two,23354 APPENDIX.when a terrible crash came against his bedroom door. Twodays afterwards he received a letter containing the newsthat exactly at the same time his godfather had died at BIX. 19. A. C. Kü.-" It was about midnight when we, myfather, mother, and two brothers, who slept in two adjoiningrooms, were awakened by a violent tapping at the windowthree times repeated. My father got up, opened the window,and looked for the cause. At the same moment there werethree taps at the other window; but my father, hastening toit at once, could not discover anything there either. Thenmy mother exclaimed, weeping, ' Your grandfather is worse;he is certainly dead; this is an omen. ' And so it proved.The next morning a messenger arrived with the news thatgrandfather had died at midnight. "X. 14. A. Martha Br.-" When I was a girl of fourteen Iheard a loud knocking. My uncle, who was living in Paris,died at the same hour as the knocking had been heard atthe door. My mother and I looked out, without being able to discover the cause for it. At the same time theclock stopped. "X. 19. Charlotte La.--" In the June of 1879, one day ateight o'clock in the evening, I was in the kitchen at Örebro(in Sweden). My father was busy packing in the drawing- room. I thought that I heard the sound of a guitar in thisroom, and expressed my surprise to my mother (who didnot hear it) that my father should be so merry and shouldbe playing just before his departure. The music was cheerful, some well-known melodies which my father was in thehabit of singing and playing. At eleven o'clock the sameevening my father started for Germany, in order to visit mygrandmother at Nuremberg. Onthe following morning, whilemy father was still on the road, we received a telegram,saying that my grandmother had unexpectedly died at theage of seventy- five . I had heard the playing one monthbefore as I lay in bed. It woke me up and frightened me.The tendency to second-sight and presentiments is hereditaryin our family. My father, mother, and paternal grandfatherwere all alike in this respect . I am in good health. "XII. 13. A. Ferd. Schm.-" After an absence of many years I had returned to the house I was born in. Thishouse was built in the sixteenth century, formerly belongedAPPENDIX. 355I had seized someto the monastery of St. Michael, and was first lived in by abishop. On the first floor were some bedrooms, dividedby lath partitions, and having old-fashioned stuff hangings.Since my childhood only one death had taken place here;when I was eight years old my father died, about Christmas1876. A suicide (by hanging) had taken place here somewhere between the years 1850 and 1860. According to mydiary, I heard the sound of furtive or careful footsteps onFebruary 16th, just after I had gone to bed at 11.30 P.M.I called several times, but received no answer. Somethingwas creeping up to my chamber door.object with which to defend myself, and waited, in thegreatest tension of excitement, for what was coming. Idistinctly heard the opening of the door, and asked-almostin a shriek-who was there, but received no answer, andcould think of no explanation, as the sounds were not sodistinct as the noises made by rats and mice. Judging bythe cautious steps, I thought at first it might be my grandmother, who was then ill, and must certainly have been inbed at that hour. She may have had her thoughts stronglydirected to me. The doctor had pronounced it impossiblefor her to live long. Her death took place on the 10th ofMarch following."XII. 13. B. Ferd. Schm.-" Herr Li- and my motherwere in the sitting-room, late one evening, when bothsuddenly heard the front door open, there was a clink [ofthe latch? ], and some one came up the steps, crossed thepassage, passed the three steps leading to the kitchen, andthen went through the kitchen to the door of the sittingroom. My mother stood in the middle of the room, awaiting the nightly visitor, but there was no knock, neither wasany one in the kitchen when both went out. " (This is saidto have happened in the autumn of 1888.)XV. 5. Von T.-"At Würzburg, between 6 and 8 P.M.(I cannot remember the exact date-I think it was in thespring of 1888) , I heard a noise as if a stone had beenthrown at the window, or a heavy blow struck on it. I wasjust talking to my landlady, Frau B- and in a completelynormal and healthy condition . My landlady heard theblow, started violently, and expressed her belief that hersister-in-law (then living at Würzburg, and seriously ill) haddied, and was announcing herself. At the hour when we"356 APPENDIX.heard the blow, Frau B's sister-in-law died. Thewindow-panes, when we examined them, were quite intact. ”XVI. 1 . Meta v. O. -See p. 240.XVII. 2. Frl. Mei. -See p. 239.XVII. 17. A. Antoinette and Ella Dr.— “ My mother, mytwo sisters, and myself were one afternoon in our sitting- room at M- We were talking together. All membersof the family who were present were, like myself, fullyawake and free from all excitement. The door openingon the passage was shut. Suddenly it flew open withoutapparent cause, and all of us at once heard a heavy blow inthe room for which we could assign no reason.We weregreatly startled, and my mother said it was a warning. Onthe following day we heard that my uncle, living at E ,had suddenly and unexpectedly died of heart-disease at the exact time when we heard the blow. "XVII. 17. B.-" At the time of my father's death I suddenly heard a loud knock while I was busy in the kitchen.The plates rattled on a fixed rack, without assignable cause.My [?] was present, and thought that this was a warning.During the night which followed, my father (who was in thehouse, and already ill) died. "XXV. . . . Frau Dro.-" I heard one deep sigh. It wason November 20th, 1883. I was alone on the second floor,standing at a linen-cupboard, and heard the deep sighing in the direction of the door which led to the corridor. Therewas no possibility of delusion . My state of mind was quite calm, and I thought no more of the matter. On November23rd, in the same year, my sister died in the same house, ina room on the third floor; but I was not thinking of her the moment before hearing the sigh. It is true that Ithought of her immediately after hearing it. "XXXVI. 1. Marie K.-" To the best of my recollection,it was in the winter of last year that I was in the sitting- roomat 3 P.M. with my cousin M- I was reading a book, mycousin was sewing, when we heard a heavy blow and werefrightened. It sounded as though a tile had fallen down inthe chimney. When my cousin examined the fireplace shecould find nothing. My uncle died at exactly the sametime, as I heard some days later. He was very old andinfirm , living at Passau. I had never personally knownhim. Both of us had heard, for a fortnight, a sound likeAPPENDIX. 357the ticking of a clock, which went on day and night andstopped at the moment when we heard the blow. "XXXVI. 2. A. (Abbreviated. )-Frau Z- heard continual knocking for some days previous to three deaths—those of her father, brother, and father-in-law. It was heardonly before deaths, and ceased each time with the death.In two out of the three cases the death occurred at adistance from the place where Frau Z ———— lived.TACTILE HALLUCINATIONS.II. 9. —See p. 279.IX. 18. B. U. (schoolmaster) .-" On April 5th, 1887, at3 P.M. I felt it is true I was only half awake-my right handpressed, just as though my wife had done it. Probably shewished to comfort me, as this took place about an hour before her funeral."XV. 2. Wally R. -See p. 241 , Note 1.DREAMS, PRESENTIMENTS, WARNINGS, -Cases Where theHALLUCINATION IS DESCRIBED TOO VAGUELY.XXXVIII. Re. -See above, p. 75.I didXXIV. B. Louise Han-(Dream?) .- "This summer Isaw my own face, covered with an eruption, beside my bed.I sat up, to try to seize the vision, when it vanished. I feltvexed at this, and went to sleep. Next morning I foundmyself so weak that I could scarcely stand upright.not eat or drink all day, but sat in the open air.evening I went to bed early; next day I was well, but felta strange burning in my face. When I felt the eruptioncoming on, I bathed my face with arnica, and so got rid ofit. I should never have thought of this, had I not seen thevision two days before. "In theXXX. D. G. Wit. (schoolmaster) gives a brief report ofdreams, and writes, " I have often had warnings of the deaths of my relations. ”IX. 19. B. C. Kü.- “ The death of my grandmotherwas announced by remarkable circ*mstances. An excellentSchwarzwald clock suddenly stopped, though it had been358APPENDIX.wound up at the proper time, and the weights (which tooka week to run down) were still a good way up. My grandmother died at the very hour to which the hands werepointing when they stopped, as my mother soon after heardfrom a messenger, arriving from the place where my grandmother lived-a four hours' walk from us."XXXVI. 2. B. Frau St. " When my mother's sisterunexpectedly died (at a distance) the clock on our wallsuddenly ran down. My mother (now dead) and I bothheard it, and could not explain it. It was quite a goodclock, and went again after the weights had been drawn up.This never happened on any other occasion. The handstopped at the time of her death—which we only heard of later. "I. A. Hieb. " In June, 1846, when I was living in myfather's house at Dillingen, we found, one morning, a board-the lower part of a step, which had been quite firmly nailed in-lying loose on the stairs. The nails (long boardnails) were sticking in it . In the same night in which thestairs had so unaccountably been made impassable, my half- brother died. He was man-of-all- work ( Hausknecht) at the monastery of Medingen-two hours distant. He had beenill with a stomach complaint. None of us has any inclination to somnambulism. No one heard the wood beingwrenched out-we were all asleep when it happened. Ithad previously been so firmly fastened in that it could not have been loosened, even with an axe. "V. Franz J. Schu. and Barbara Schu. -In the summerof 1875, between midnight and 2 A.M., in the house ofSch , a large window-jamb, which had been placed in theattic and was leaning against the roof, between 1 and 2metres distant from the top of the stairs, fell down the stairs with a loud noise. At Ebbisburg, a sound was heard, asif tiles from the roof were falling down into the attic.Awakened by this noise, the family heard next day that anear relative had died at the same time. He had been illfor some time, but his death was not expected.XXX. A. G. A. Wit. (schoolmaster).-"One evening,eight years ago, I was in bed. My wife's bed was next tomine; we were conversing. In a pause of the conversation,I was raised a quarter of an ell into the air. I said, ' Dostop that nonsense. ' Then I was gently lowered again. IAPPENDIX. 359did not think of spiritism . I was wide awake and in noway excited; I was also quite well and free from anxiety.My wife noticed nothing. Soon after this, my uncle, theRev. X., died, after the apparition of a spirit in broad daylight, at 12 noon."XXI.-C. T. went, in the autumn of 1868, to escortan acquaintance of his to her home, after a visit to hergrandmother, who was ill . He suddenly had a well-definedpresentiment that the grandmother would die next morningat 7 A.M. Next morning, at that hour, she appeared tohim in a dream, and said, " Good morning, Herr T— .”He sent over at once to inquire, and heard that she hadjust died. (He had, on the previous evening, told thegrand-daughter of his presentiment. )In the year 1870, again, after the death of his wife, T.had a presentiment that two more deaths would occur in the house. The presentiment came true.APPENDIX II.TABULAR CONSPECTUS OF THE STATISTICS OF WAKINGHALLUCINATIONS.IN the following conspectus there are published, in the firstplace, the figures of the English census as given in the Report. But these are supplemented, as far as I foundit possible to do so, by the addition of the American,French, and Munich results.The final figures of the English Collection here citeddiffer slightly from the ad interim tables which were quotedin Chapters III. and IX. The differences, which are mainly due to the adoption in the Report of different methods indealing with the results, are, however, trifling, and do not inany wise affect the conclusions arrived at in the text.For kind permission to publish the Tables I must hereexpress my best thanks to the English Society for PsychicalResearch, and the Munich Psychologische Gesellschaft, -especially to Professor Sidgwick and Baron von SchrenckNotzing.360APPENDIX.PROPORTION ANSWERS RECEIVED ,AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE TABLE I.-NUMBER OFTOTAL .FRMER TOPER CNT .OFTHERECEIVED .ANSWERSAffirmative .COLLECTED Details Given . Negative . Total . Details not Total .of Percentage Affirmative. Answers First Second Given . Hand . Hand .Men 496 83 76 655 7,717 7.8 8,372 Women S.P.R. By 753 162 114 1029 7,599 8,628 12.0Total 1249 245 190 1684 15,316 17,000 9.9Men65 20978 352 1,952 2,304 15.27Marillier L.By Women87 160 80 327 762 1,089 30.02·Total 152 369 158 679 2,714 3,393 20.01Men 411 3,334 3.745 10.97 Women 441 2,125 2,566 17.14 ByW.James¹TotalMen852 5,459 6,311 13.520 316 336 5.95 Women 31 258 289 10.72 AtMunichTotal —— 51 574 625 8.16According toalater communication from Professor James ,theotal number ofanswers received was 7123 ,ofwhich 1answers ,however 429 are without details and 361051 (=4.75 per cnt .)areffirmative Ofthese signature .APPENDIX. 361FROM MEN .TABLE I.A.WOMEN FROM . TOTAL .COLLECTED Affirma- Percentage TOTAL . tiveAnswers . Affirmative of Answers . TOTAL .Affirmative Per- centage . Affirmative TOTAL . Per- centage .England In 8,372 655 7.8 8,628 1,029 12.0 17,000 1,684 9.9Marillier L.By 2,304 352 15.27 1,089 327 30.02 3,393 679 20.01Prof. ByJames 3,745 4II 10.97 2,566 441 17.14 6,311 852 13.5InMunich 336 20 5.95 289 31 10.7 625 51 8.16Total• 14:757 1,438 9.75 12,572 1,828 3,266 27,329 14.57 11.96N.B .-(1)The figures ofthe "second -hand column are tobeunderstood asmeaning thate occurrence ofhallucination was communicated bythe percipient himself ,but details ofexperience have been obtained atsecond ,inasmall number ofinstances atthird orfourth hand .(2.)The figures ofM.arillier's censusotain (inthe version printed inthe Report ofLondon Congress )afew trifling errors incalculation . The correction ofthese has cused the discrepancy between tables asthere printed and those given her .(3.)The figures for Munich relate toinformation collected upDecember 1893 .362APPENDIX.TABLE II.WAKING HALLUCINATIONS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THESENSE AFFECTED, AND ACCORDING TO THE KIND OFPERCEPT.Preliminary Observations. —While in Table I. the numberof persons experiencing hallucinations is in question, thefollowing table concerns the number of hallucinationsreported, the two sets of numbers differing from one another, as not a few persons have more than one such experience to report. Each separately described hallucination is reckoned by itself; cases occurring repeatedly,not separately described, are counted as one (e.g. , in the English census in the case of III narratives of visualhallucinations given at first-hand and 29 of the same atsecond-hand, and in a still greater number of auditory and tactile cases. Cf. Tables V., VI. , VII.)In the calculation of column 15 the number of personsanswering is reduced in the same proportion as the numberof affirmative answers is reduced by the omission ofthose answers in which no further particulars were given(Cf. Table I. ). In the English census, e.g. , we find 1295cases of visual hallucinations (first and second-hand casesadded together)-i.e. , about 8.4 per cent. of 17,000X1684-1901684 In the German census a detailed explanationis added to almost every affirmative answer; here all cases have been taken into consideration. As for the Americancensus, I have not had access to the necessary statistics ,which is also the case with the French. Of the latter,however, I was able to use the provisional results up toApril 1st, 1891. (See Proceed. S.P.R. , Part xix. , pp. 264-267.) At that time 2822 answers had been received, ofAPPENDIX. 363which 472 were affirmative. As only 231 of these hadexplanations appended, column 15 is here reckoned from1363. In Table II. d, therefore, 15130 + 1363 231 2822 × = 1472+625 = 17118 answers are taken into account.Columns 1 , 2 , 3 , 8, and 9 contain the cases which, according to the report, belong to the most distinctlyexternalised, those, i.e. , which looked exactly like humanbeings, animals, or objects. Under 1 , besides phantasmsof the living, those apparitions whose prototype wasalready dead have been reckoned, if the percipient didnot know of the death, and if it had taken place notmore than twelve hours before the hallucination. Column4 contains visual images incompletely developed, such astransparent, colourless, or shadowy and indistinct figures,apparitions ofparts of the human body, and figures which,though apparently having a bodily form, are veiled. By"Visions," 5, are to be understood scenes which do notappear to take place in the real surroundings of thepercipient. Sometimes they are distinctly externalised,sometimes only visible to the mental eye. Column IIcontains appearances not clearly seen by the percipient,not identified by him, or to which he was unable to givea name; also such appearances as smoke, cases of darkshadows between the observer and the lamp, a black ballrising into the sky like a balloon, and (in the Germanreport) sighs, or sounds like tapping at the windows, chairsfalling over, etc.1010 11 13 141715First. Hand Second. HandFirst. HandSecond. HandTOTALS .Hallucinations of NumberPersons of . cent per . answering. Hand First. Hand Second. Hand First. Hand Second. Hand First. HandSecond. HandLights .Indefinite Objects . Touches orInsufficiently for described . ClassificationTABLE II.A.-ENGLISH CENSUS5 6Angels Re- and ligious Visions . Phan. Hand Firsttasins .. Hand Second. Hand, Grotesque, Horrible Monstrous or . Apparitions ~006First. Hand Second. HandFirst. Hand . Animals Second. Hand First. HandSecondDefinite Inanimate. ObjectsFirst. Hand Second. Hand First. Hand Second. Hand First. Hand Second. Hand First. Hand Second. Hand First. Hand SecondOfLiving OfDead Un-.recog.Persons.nised1 2 3Realistic Phantasms , Voices etc. ,Incompletely developed . Apparitions 4ප296 ,36 105 22 272 4 128030 413| 7-1347-4 2424 5-9Н4121 172 426Visual Visual Auditory & vocal (..) Visual Auditory & vocal (non -)Visual &Tactile .. Visual &Auditory Tactile vocal )&(Visual &Auditory Tactile non -vc .)&( Auditory (vocal )Auditory vocal ()& Tactile .. Tactile Tactile &Auditory)-vocal nn (Totals.. 3549।छ134482--195144 5879536 .. 232 41245512 5-21∞10IН423162102211072I11111∞||12TI2T110-81291261511119551219520 11943520166337 126 2 1717141143501112075 8.4377 ,11611- 388 116 3.3 108 29 114 29.9- 191753162252320 8APPENDIX.365VisualTABLE II.B.FRENCH CENSUS1 2 3 4 6 8 9 11 13 14Realistic Phan- tasms ,Voices etc.TOTAL .5I 12224 20 27 I 213 9078I 202 3II8.910 ...I 99698 2 7.1I II II 0.840 46 83 3 I 2 154I 231 231Visual and Auditory Visual and Tactile Visual and Olfactory Visual Olfactory ,Aud .Tactile Olf Aud Vis ., Auditory ... Tactile and Auditory Tactile ...Totals

366APPENDIX.TABLE II. C.-MUNICH CENSUS..LivingDead .Unrecog- nised ..Animals1 2 3Phantasms,Voices, etc. ofRecog- Definitely-vocal Non nised Sounds ..IndefiniteTOTAL .∞9 11 13 14 15 Number ofHallucinations.cent prVisualVisual and Auditory IVisual and TactileVisual, Aud. , TactileAuditory (Vocal) , .Auditory(Non- Vocal)Tactile8 7ང་7- I II I2423230 4.64I- 2 2 I I 626 4.322 18 202 I 3 3 0.48Totals II II 5 20 59 59 -APPENDIX. 3677TABLE GENERAL II.D.-RESULT2 3 4 5 6 76 810 11 12 13364 154 353 135 2714 298ر (2253455 35 5. Living the Of. Dead the OfRealistic Phan-. Unrecognisedetc. Voices ,tasmsdeveloped Incompletely . Phantasms. Visionsother and Angels . Phantasms Religiousor , Horrible , Grotesque . Apparitions Monstrous. AnimalsInanimate Definite . Objects. LightsObjects Indefinite . Touches ordescribed Insufficiently. Classification for. TOTALVisual .Visual and AuditoryVisual and Tactile .Visual and OlfactoryAud Vis .,TactileAuditory .Aud and .TactileTactile•435514414II-T-8 8, 68 8224 245 766 6 621 7 67-4Totals 666 332 731913236H3314 15Hallucina- of Number of . cent per tions . answering Persons20118718543I31-1441 8.459 615 634 3.7I1949 151 0.88 15122 39 43 35 18 129 22320 2232one 1Ithese ofsmell cases ,included was fourth assense .1368APPENDIX.TABLE III.-HALLUCINATIONS CLASSIFIED ACCORDINGTO THE AGE OF THE PERCIPIENT.• ENGLISH CENSUS. Under 10. 10-19 .20-29 .30-39 .40-49 .50-59 .60-69 .over 70&.Unstated ..TotalVisual Hallucinations 72 217 300 143 81 40 22 5 415 1295Auditory Hallucina- tions . 3 42 91 38 21 14 5- 290 504Tactile Hallucina- tions .I II 32 17 14 3 I — 64 143Total • 76 270 423 198 116 57 28 5 769 1942NOTE. Ofthe 17,000 answers received in the English census, 6,521 indicated the percipient's age. The average age of these 6,521 was about 40. I have not seen the statistics of age given in the French or the American census.APPENDIX.24TABLE IV.-WAKING HALLUCINATIONS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TOHE NATIONALITY OFPERSONS ANSWERING .English speaking -.No. ofPersons Answering ..)CASES ARE INCLUDED SECOND -HAND (ENGLISH CENSUS .Percentage Affirmative of . Answers.RussiansPersons No. of Answering .No. Yes .TotalPercentage Affirmative of . AnswersBrazilians .Persons No. of Answering .Percentage Affirmative of . AnswersOther Nations .No. ofPersons Answering .Total .YesPercentage Affirmative of . Answers No. Yes .Total No. .Total Yes No. Men . Women 7167734 567 7.3 300 3434 10.2Total 1499159407274 272 8206 11.4 7436 21.4 93214441 9.4167 5021 1334 23.0 83 47 27.7 19$741029 4.6 34.5572 108 680 15.9 63201 264 23.9 102 14 1162.1Number of Hallucinations .of . cent PerPersons . AnsweringNumber of Hallucinations .of . cent PerPersons . AnsweringNumber of Hallucinations .of . cent PerPersons . AnsweringNumber of Hallucinations .of . cent PerPersons . Answering Visual Visual Auditory and (vocal ) 947 86 68 17 315 Visual and Auditory non- ( vocal ) 52 9 Visual and Tactile 301109 7.8 3 124 18.6 +50 2 19.3 121 12.9 Visual and Auditory vocal () and Tactile 99 2 Auditory Visual and (non- Tactile and vocal ) 3)vocal (Auditory 425 29 37 Tactile )and (vocal Auditory 434 3.0 29 4.3 39 14.8 2.29 Tactile 127· Tactile and Auditory (non- 132 0.9 7 1.0 1.5 vocal ) 5J Undescribed 192 2The numbers ofthe Munich Census are too small tobeofany value .370 APPENDIX.TABLE V. -VISUAL HALLUCINATIONS IN THE ENGLISHCENSUS.¹A..VISUAL HALLUCINATIONS DIVIDED ACCORDING TO DATES.Realistic human apparitions of living persons Ofdead personsUnrecognisedIncompletely developed apparitions VisionsAngels and religious apparitions,etc.Grotesque, horrible apparitions,etc. Animals Definite inanimate objectsLights Indefinite objectsTotalsHallucina- tions More than within the 10 years Un- Totals.dated. last 10 ago.years.157126 58888166 62 85 140 60 74IO80828 29 352 16 163 49 315 143 3 214 5 3126 24 2528 47636314833251417 I 17460 529 123 II121 Tables V. , VI. , VII. contain only first - hand cases; narrativeswhere the details were insufficient for classification have also beenexcluded,APPENDIX. 371TABLE V. B.VISUAL HALLUCINATIONS DIVIDED ACCORDING TO CONDITIONS OF PERCEPTION.Realistic human appari- tions of living personsOf dead personsUnrecognised .Incompletely developedapparitions VisionsAngels and religious appari- tions, etc.Grotesque, horrible appari- tions, etc. Animals .Definite inanimate objectsLights .Indefinite objectsTotalsPer- ately after cipient Up,Immedi- OutAwake Indoors Waking.of- Doors in Bed. 78142950 Unstated .Totals .943143 77 149 46 74 19 36 90 III 6770 13 352 16 163 II 31524 50 47 19 143 2 II 21—5 3 2 2 122 3325141717129 294423438 20163950 11126216-34221213II6II83 343334372 APPENDIX. Realistic Human Apparitions . OfDead Persons .Living All other Visual Hallucinations . Incompletely Developed Apparitions . Unrecognised .TABLE V. C.-TABLES A AND B COMBINED.Immediately after waking Awake in bedUpOut- of- doors UnstatedTotals .Within the last 10years .More than years 10ago .Undated .Totals .•-www- 16 2431 43 78 64 31 313378 0043477 1497013157 166 29 352 wodu A5 319 25 26 42 9 103 51201008467419 8 1662 85Immediately after waking Awake in bedOut-of- doors UpUnstated ·Totals .Immediately after waking Awake in bedUpOut-of- doors Unstated •Totals .(Immediately after waking Awake in bedUpOut-of- doors UnstatedTotals .Immediately after waking Awake in bedUpOut-of-doors Unstated •Totals .wã18+ΙΟ 831 54 47 42 2230 33I ΙΟ16 163 ∞5240369038555III67II126 140 49 3152360555 812 1219 29205 12I12424472549 245019 I 374 9 143937425242214 12I++∞|+0358 183157755564 20 139iAPPENDIX. 373HALLUCINATIONS AUDITORY VI.-TABLE.CENSUS ENGLISH,DIVIDED TIME SA ATTHEFFECTED SENSE ISOTHER SOM WHICH TOSE INCLUDINGPERCEPTION .CONDITIONS OFTODATE ANDCCORDINGthe asRecognised voice ofaliving person . the asRecognised dead ofavoice person . Unrecognised . Totals .the Within . years 10 lastthan More . ago years 10. Undated. Totalsthe Within . years 10 lastthan More . ago years 10. Undated. Totalsthe Within . years 10 lastthan More . ago years 10. Undated. Totalsthe Within . years 10 lastthan More . ago years 10. Undated. Totals1339619 II21I135300 15561526427 641865335353315 20 IO1112233 27 ΙΟ IIΙΟI35122136150381333+1231478231 1362 2222173626207171600380 3320 3635862200856116 2461486 3033+34I 52 324I I69967323573365443421I563221II 21 23175723380N14 36I30 3461170 56223 6015 159 694055399 1356 494Percipient's name only- bed inPercipient 16"" up 33 Unstated664635 Words other than Percipient's thename- bed inPercipient 15"" up Unstated311614 ΙΟVoices (nodefinite words heard )orex--as"Voices described periences bed inPercipient"" up UnstatedTotals374 APPENDIX.TACTILE TABLE VII HALLUCINATIONS .- ENGLISH CENSUS .INCLUDING THOSE INWHICH SOME OTHR SENSE ISAFFECTED ATTHE SAME TIME ,DVIDEDACCORDING TODATE AND CONDITIONS OFPERCEPTION .Touches associated with Human Beings .Living . Dead . Unrecognised .Touch ofan Animal orInanimate Object . Indefinite . Totals .272110 32167Iकै27817442217I 135 618379642117911-H13H226 354တ တ2 24857987HTTH23148123T|||111 +1111 123333553160 888 H781 3372636the Within. years 10 last than More . ago years 10 . Undated. Totalsthe Within. years 10 last than More . ago years 10 . Undated. Totalsthe Within. years 10 last than More . ago years 10 . Undated. Totalsthe Within. years 10 last than More . ago years 10 . Undated. Totalsthe Within. years 10 last than More . ago years 10 . Undated. Totalsthe Within. years 10 last than More . ago years 10 . Undated. TotalsPercipient touchedPercipient touchingbed In Up. UnstatedInbed Up UnstatedTotalsAPPENDIX. 375TABLE VIII .-COINCIDENCES A.-ENGLISH CENSUS.¹Within the last 5years . Between 5and 10years . More than 10years ago . Undated . TOTALS .First- Hand . Second- First- Hand . First- Second- First- Hand . Second- Hand .apparition The coincided wth theofdeathseen personthe...Other coincidencesNocoincidencetimes 5II21 84 3 50in+05 I 554 I 9 I272 67— 25I 99 5 23 19 256 285200100 65959 3 163 52626 21 348 351Thisable isbased onadinterim figures:nocorresponding Table appears inthe final Report .Totals376APPENDIX.TABLE VIII. B. -MUNICH CENSUS.The apparition coincided withthe death of the personseenNo coincidenceTotalsWithin the last5years .than 5Moreyears ago .233 53 31 65 6 II1 These three cases (cf. Appendix I.: cases xxxi . a. b. d . ) werenarrated by one and the same person; these figures, therefore, alsopoint in the direction indicated on pp. 275 sqq.TOTALS.INDEX OF AUTHORS.ABERCROMBIE, 51 , 58, 59Acker, 25, 26 Ackermann, 32 Albers, 56 Alt, 22Anjel, 281 Aristotle, 3, 51 Arndt, 230Arnold, 18 Aschaffenburg, 48, 322 Asmus, 34Atkins, 168 Athenodorus, 78Aubanel, 13, 26, 30 Audin, 79Bernheim, 61 , 62, 104 , 130, 200,215-216, 232, 240, 278, 285 Bert, 131 Bessus, 80 Bidder, 131Biëlski, 157 , 160 Billot, 33Binet, 119, 130, 137 , 149 , 175, 198,200, 219, 222, 230 et seq.Binz, 50, 56 Blau, 8Bleuler, 229Blumröder, 3, 30, 33Bodinus, 65, 77Auzouy, 28BAGINSKY, 179Bahnsen, J. , 189238, 244 Bakewell, 171Boëns, 40 Boerhaave, 44 Boerner, 56, 57 Bois- Reymond, Du, 131Bottex, 14, 33, III, 159Bones, 45Baillarger, 16, 21 , 23. 38, 118, 119, Bottentuit , 44Ball, 16, 25 , 174, 262, 266 Baren, Cohen v. , 34 Barrett, F. W., 205 Bartens, 44 Bartisch, 161 Baruk, 25, 26 Beattie, 58 Béclard, 175Becquet, 72 Behr, 4Benedict, 3Beneke, 189 Bennet, 33Bergmann, 165 Berkhan, 85 Bernhardt, 4 , 269Bound, 19 Boureau, 44 Bourneville, 40 Brach, 201 , 246 Braid, 309Braumüller, Pater, 312 Brenner, 177Brewster, 200 Brierre de Boismont, 14, 26, 29, 33,34, 38, 42 et seq. , 74, 77, 97, 114,120, 202, 325 Bright, 174 Briquet, 46, 166 Broca, 269 Buccola, 177 Buch, 174 Buchholz, 50 24

378 INDEX OF AUTHORS.Burckhardt- Préfargier, 253, 268 Burdach, 16, 189 Burke, 64 Burnett, 8Busch, 162CALMEIL, 13 , 37, 111 , 165Campbell, W. W. , 46 Carbonieri, 180Carnochan, 130Cellini, Benvenuto, StCardan, 78Carus, C. G. , 63Chabalier, 229 Chaddock, 42Chapotot, 4Charcot, 35, 38Charbonnier- Debatty, 40Charpentier, 338 Chassinat, 230Cherbury, Lord Herbert of, 78 Christian, 23, 25 Chvosteck, 162, 222 · Claus, 25 Cloquet, 29 Clouston, 165Cohen, 4Colowitsch, 24Conolly, 33Diez, 26 Dixey, 232 Donatus, 165 Dorvault, 46 Dresslar, 337Du Bois- Reymond (see Bois- Rey- mond)Dufour, 137Dumontpalier, 195 Duret, 140EBERS, 225Edinger, 167 Edgeworth, 274 Ehrhard, 178 Eichel, 169 Elliot, 169Elschnig, 161 Emminghaus, 33 , 44, 120 Engel, 4Engelhardt, 39 Eppstein, 228 Erlenmeyer, 30, 161 Erk, van, 50Esquirol, 13 , 16 , 18 , 19, 27 , 33 , 120.124, 132, 144, 149, 150, 252 Eulenburg, 153 Ewald, 45Cramer, A. , 10, 31 , 180 et seq. , 257, FABIAN, 161Crichton, 12 261, 270Crocq, 40 Curtis, 168Czerny, 178DAGONET, 2, 25Darwin, Erasmus, 19, 112 Daudet, 250 Dee, 66 Dehennes, 4Delabarre, 175 Delasiauve, 44 Delbœuf, 50 Dendy, 13 Denneux, 40Despine, 125, 168, 175 Dessoir, 66, 177, 227Devay, 168 Dewey, 251 Dieffenbach, 45Dietl, 46Falk, 9Falret, 14 , 23-27 , 32, 115, 325Farquharson, 9Fechner, 121 , 139, 229, 308Féré, 129, 149, 200, 219, 222, 229,231 Ferrier, 19, 113 , 150, 165 , 168, 170 Feuchtersleben, 34Ficinus, 97 Fick, 176 Filehne, 169 Fischer, 161Flechsig, 136, 165 Flemming, 161 Flourens, 134Flournoy, 228, 338 Forel (Jena), 165 , 245, 249 , 322 Forel (Zurich), 323 Foster, 130 Fournier, 25, 113Foville, 25, 112, 165 Franck, François, 12INDEX OF AUTHORS. 379Franceschi, 9Frankl- Hochwart, v. , 161Freusberg, 46 Friedländer, 269 Friedmann, 120, 196 , 336 Friedreich, 4, 262, 268 Friedrich, J. B. , III Fröhlich, 179Fromman, 65 Fuchs, 176 Funke, 183 Fürer, 32, 175 , 267GALEZOWSKY, 4Gall, 32 Galton, 225Gauthier, 46 Gelhorn, 25, 26 Giessler, 50 Gilbert, 337 Girma, 25 Gluge, 40, 131 Goethe, 2, 114Goltz, 157 , 181 Gorham, 175Gowers, 33 , 168 Graefe, 3 , 160, 161 , 170, 174 Grashey, 24, 138 , 150, 252, 257 Gratiolet, 246 Gregory, 33, 54 Griesinger, 15, 18, 21 , 29-33 , 71 , III ,114, 115 , 125 , 128, 160 , 163 , 189,194 , 202, 238, 246-247 , 252 , 325 Griffing, 338 Grohmann, 124Gruber (Jassy) , 224 Gruber, 260 Gruithuisen, 128 Gudden, 12 Guéniot, 10, II Guensburg, 42 Guépin, 3Gurney, I , 14 , 62 , 82, 113 , 116, 154,155 , 168, 232, 270, 287-288 Gutsch, 157Haslam, 24Hauptmann, G. , 253 Hecker, 2Hedinger, 161 Heimbeck, 9Heis, 308 Helmholtz, 176, 183 , 234 Herbert of Cherbury, Lord, 78Hering, 130, 183 Herrmann, 56, 131 , 183 Herth, 175 Heubner, 140Heyfelder, 160 Heymans, 5Hibbert, 13, 311Higier, 32, 174, 204 , 222 Hilbert, 9, 44Hildebrandt, 50 Himly, 8Hitzig, 25, 113 , 181 Hjertström, 33 Hoche, 201 Hodgson, 104 Hoffmann, 116 Holland, Sir II. , 114, 256 , 265 Hoppe, 7, 17 , 27, 42, 170, 177, 179,230, 239, 258, 263 Horst, 309 Huck, 3Hufeland, 9Hughlings - Jackson, 33 , 143 Humboldt, W. v. , 189 Hume, David, 121 Huppert, 24 Hutchinson , 222ITARD, 178JACKSON (See Hughlings-Jackson )Jacobs, 176 Jahn , 308 James, Win. , 10, 15 , 83 , 87 , 127, 130,135, 137, 141 et seq. , 173, 219, 220,232, 251 , 262, 275, 288, 304 Jan, 50 Janet, 117, 224 HAGEN, 16, 23 , 25 , 33 , 118, 122-125, Jendrassik, 231 144, 161 , 189, 325 Hall, Stanley, 208 Hammond, 203 Hansen, 318 et seq.Hartmann, 189Jensen, 50, 281 Jessen, 50, 281 Johnson, 165 Jolly, 133, 157, 160, 177, 222 Joseph, 65380 INDEX OF AUTHORS.Josephus, 308 Judée, Ch. , 46 Jung, 26 Jupp, 256KAAN, 32Kahlbaum, 115-117, 183Leland, 70Lélut, 14, 28, 77, III Lemoine, 50Lepsius, 225 Leubuscher, III , 120, 163 , 202 Leuret, 2, 14 , 111 , 252 Levinstein, 4Kandinsky, V. , 16, 30, 113 , 121 , 137 , Lewin, 8250-251 , 253, 261 , 264, 268Kelp, 85 Kieselbach, 177 Kieser, 20Kiesewelter, 63Klinke, 31 , 259-260 Knapp, 8Kirn, 23Klein, 25Köhler, 85 Kölle, 24Köppe, 123, 157, 159, 161 Kohlschütter, 17 Kolk, Schroeder van der, 113 , 120, 281Kraepelin, 22, 30, 31 , 44, 48, 71 , 72,117, 147, 278, 280-281 , 322Krafft- Ebing, 21 , 22, 24, 27 , 29, 30,32, 33, 39, 42, 114, 116, 125 , 175,204, 247, 249, 278, 322, 325Krause, 78 Krauss, A. , 17, 52 Krauss, Th. , 9Linstow, 25 Lipps, 5 , 340 Lissauer, K. , 4Lissauer, 135Locher- Zwingli, 161 Lochus, 3Lockemann, 180 Lombroso, 77, 126, 199 Londe, 21 Longet, 134 Lotze, 189 Lowell, J. R. , 282 Lucae, 178 , 179 Lussana, 202 Luys, 27, 113 , 165 , 168MABILLE, 174 Macario, 112 Maccabees, 308 Mach, 8Macnish, 50Magnan, 43 , 175, 194Krieger, 169 Krohn, 230 Kühne, 131Kuykendael, 46 Kussmaul, 44, 182LADAME, 269 Laehr, 325 Lamoine, 50 Lane, 64 Lang (Gross- Hesselohe ) , 312 Lange, N. , 46Lange, 72 Langendorff, 157 Langwieser, 264 Lanne, 162 Lazarus, 133 , 197 Leber, 4Lefebvre, 40Legué, 37 Lehert, 166 Lehmann, 229, 317 et seq.Magne, 160 Manonry, 80 Marandon de Montyel, 23Marc, 28 Mari, 9Marillier, L. , 83, 87, 276, 359 Martin, A. , 9Martini, De, 9Maury, 17, 50, 51 , 53, 57 , 143 Mauthner, v. , 9Mayer, A. , 17, 46 Menardière, Pilet de la, 37Mendel, 21 , 23, 25 , 26, 48, 150, 161 ,166Mendoza, F. Suarez de, 230 Mercurialis, 178 Meschede, 165 , 180 Meyer, 3Meyer, G. H., 129 Meyer, L. , 2, 26, 33 , 120 Meynert, 23 , 113 , 121 , 138, 140 etseq., 177, 181INDEX OF AUTHORS. 381Michéa, 2, 13 , 17, 20, 27, 30, 32-34, Perty, 41 , 75, 77, 310, 311Michel, 28, 265 38, 165, 202, 323Mickle, 25 , 26, 165 Mitchell, Weir, 10, 12, 239 Möller, 114Pfaff, 188 Pflüger, 153 Philippe, 249 Pick, 136, 200, 202, 265 , 269 Pico della Mirandola, 65Moll, 19, 59, 92, 205 et seq. , 209, Pierson, 269 218, 231 , 245, 285, 326 Monakow, 12, 126, 132 Moos, 178Pieraccini, 203 Pierce, 287 Piesse, 38 Pilet de la Menardière, 37Moreau ( de Tours) , 13 , 20, 38, 45 , Plater, 19, 178 Morel, 17, 25 , 159, 18046, 143, 263 Morselli, 335 Mourly- Vold, 50, 55, 247 Moxon, 9Müller, 338Müller, C. F. , 56 Müller, F. C. , 48 Müller, Fr. , 136Plato, 77, 190Plutarch, 80 Podmore, 274, 315 Poe, E. A. , 303 Pohl , 120Politzer, 164, 186 Pollnow, 179 Polli, 45Müller, J. , 16, 110, 114, 159, 165 , Pooley, 168 169, 192Münsterberg, 142, 145 , 198 Munk, 113, 134 , 135, 181 Myers, 63, 66, 70, 77 , 116, 227, Preyer, 46, 153, 176, 182 262NANCY SCHOOL, 196Naunyn, 269Popp, 44Pratt, 306 Prel, Du, 11 , 67Procopius, 80 Prosper- Alpin, 41 Pupke, 4Purkinje, 50, 55, 169QUADRI, 179 Neiglick, 229 Nelson, 300Neumann, 111 , 120, 150, 281 Newton, 169 Nicolai, 256Nussbaumer, 229 Nothnagel, 268 , 269OBERMEYER, 26 Obersteiner, 26 Ochorowicz, 61 Ottolenghi, 126 Ottway, 309PAGET, 33 Paracelsus, 70Parant, 265 Paré, 10 Parinaud, 199 Paterson, 128, 166 Pelman, 137 Perrond, 229Quincey, De, 46RADESTOCK, 15 , 41 , 50 , 56 , 188, 189 ,211, 246 Rause, F. de, 230 Rawlinson, 242 Rech, 46 Régis, 25, 44, 175 Reil, 120, 202 Reinhard, 165 Rells, 63, 210 Reubold, 52 Richer, 35-38, 45 Richet, 272 Richter, 164Rieger, 181 Ringer, Sidney, 85 Ringier, 61 Rist, 66 Ritti, 25, 113Rizet, 10382 INDEX OF AUTHORS.Robertson, Alex. , 32 Roger, 269 Romberg, 123 , 165 Rose, 9, 32Rosenbach, 254 Rosenbaum, 153Royce, 277 Rudolphi, 124 Ruf, 159246, 281 Sandras, 114Siebeck, 50 Siebert, 50 Siemens, F. , 157 Simon, 25 Simon, M. , 159 Simonowitsch, 203Sims, 287Sinogovitz, 158, 174 Snell, 22 Sommer, 320SANDER, 3, 23 , 25 , 33 , 166, 180, Souchon , 32, 175Savage, 29, 54, 174 , 211Saury, 26 Sauvage, 19, 169Schaller, 120 Schech, 56 Scherner, 50, 52 Schiff, 134 Schiller, 193 Schirmer, 167Schlager, 29, 132 Schleiermacher, 48 Schmiedekam, 179Schmidt- Rimpler, 160 Scholz, 164, 173 Schönthal, 30 Schrader, 134Schrenck- Notzing , 29 , 35 , 41 , 45, 83 ,187 , 196, 246, 344 ( App. I. ) , 359- Schröder, 4Schroeder van der Kolk (see Kolk)Schroff, 46Sous, G. , 161 Spencer, 44 Spitta, 38, 44, 50, 51 , 52, 57-59, 70,189 Stauffer, 12Steinbrügge, 229-230Stellwag, von Carion, 4Stenger, 165 Stinde, Jul. , 230 Strahl, M., 56 Stricker, 121 , 133 , 137, 182 Strong, 191 Strümpell, 50 Stucki, Peter, 75 Studer, 310 Suarez de Mendoza (see Mendoza) ,230 Sully, 4, 54Swieten, Van, 9Syzianko, 177 Szafkowski, 14, 33, 325TACITUS, 79Schüle, 16, 25 , 110, 121 , 124 , 125 , Taine, 16 , 118, 143 165, 203 Schunk, 33 Schwabach, 179Schwarze, 177 , 173 Schwann, 131 Searle, 244 Seashore, 191 , 377 et seq.Seemann, 41Séglas, 21 , 32, 264 Sémal, 40Sepilli, 203 Séquin, 128 Sergi, 126 Sérieux, 269 Sichel, 160 Sidgwick, 82, 359 Sidgwick, Mrs. , 232, 293 , 320Talma, 81 Tamburini, 125, 167-168 Tasso, 81 Tavignot , 160 Thomas Aquinas, 65 Thomeuf, 24 Thomsen, 41Thore, 26, 30, 49, 85Tigges, 127, 166 , 168 , 201 , 203 Tomaschevsky, 203 Toulouse, 32 Truchsess, 42UHTHOFF, 174 Ulrici, 189 Unterharnscheid , 4Urbantschitsch, 178, 203 , 220INDEX OF AUTHORS. 383VALENTIN, 10, 179Vay, A. v. , 246 Verga, Andr. , I , 32 Virchow, 139 Vogt, 323-4Vould, J. Mourly-, 50, 55 , 247 Voisin, 25, 175 Volkelt, 50 Volkmann v. Volkmar, 234Volta, 170 Vulpian, 131WAGNER, 50 Walker, 309 Warlomont, 40 Weber, 43 Weiss, 21, 23 Weisse, 29Wernicke, 269 Westphal, 2, 3, 25 Weigandt, 50, 53, 54, 55, 57Wigan, 281 Wijsmann, 120 Willbrandt, 135 Wille, 268 Winslow, 167Wittich, 8Wolf, 8Wolff, 42Wundt, 128, 140, 154, 183 , 206 etseq. , 212, 216, 236, 237, 318 Wyss, 203, 210X. (Miss), 297 Xenophon, 77ZANDER, 163 Zehender, 160Ziehen, 31 , 179, 184, 227, 262, 266,322 Ziemssen, 25

INDEX OF SUBJECTS.ABDOMEN, voices heard from, 2 , Aura, epileptic, 33, 100; hysterical ,260, 265 Absinth, 43 Accelerated association , 322After-images, 8, 96, 128-130, 173,175, 197, 243, 248; auditory, 176,259 Age, influence of, on hallucinations,84, 189 Alcohol, 34, 41 , 43, 71Ambiguous stimuli, 5Amentia, 21Amnesia, 92 ( see Forgetfulness)Anæmia, 153 Anæsthesia, 6, 211 Analgesia, 211 , 216 Anxiety, 96, 191 , 302, 316 Aphasia, 127, 265 Apparitions at death, 272, 286; in sky, 308-309 Association, disturbed, 138 , 141 ,322 (see Dissociation); enforced,219, 336; obstructed , 65, 71-73,158, 322; of ideas, 68, 72, 257,290-291 , 300, 302, 305; of ideas,dreams from, 50, 51Atropin, 7, 44, 70, 202 Attention, 154, 192 , 216, 217; inrapport, 205, 206, 208, 209, 213,214, 218 Attila, 79"Audible thinking, " 24, 182, 184 ,252, 256, 258, 259, 262, 265,266Auditory hallucinations, see Hallucina- tions , auditoryAudition colorée (sound- seeing) , 223,22735; preceding " sensory shock, " 239 Automatic articulation , 155 , 259, 261- 263, 270, 322Automatic writing, 154, 156, 261-263BELLADONNA, 44Blind, so - called " visual " hallucina- tions in the, 186, 222, 246 Borderland hallucinations, 91 , 299Bright's disease, 173 Brocken spectre, 3Byron, 81CATARACT, 160Catoptromancy ( divination by mirror) ,65 Census of hallucinations, American,83, 275; English, 82, 87, 237, 275;Munich, 83, 275; French, 83, 87,276Centres of sensation and imagination identical, 133-136Centrifugal theories, 113, 125 Centripetal theories, 132 Charles IX. , 80Chattering, spasmodic, 262, 268 Chorea, see Epidemic of dancing Chloroform intoxication , 44 Chromatisms, 223, 224; phonetic,measurement of, 224-227Cinchona, 46 Clairvoyance, 273 Closing the eyes, action of, on hal- lucinations, 202-203Coca, 34, 40Coincidental hallucinations, see Hallu- cinations, coincidental386INDEX OF SUBJECTS.Collective hallucinations, see Hallu- | Disappearance of hallucinations on cinations, collective Colour, associated with sound, see Audition coloréeColour- blindness, 163Colouring of hallucinations, degrees of realism in, 246 Consciousness, dissociation of, see Dissociation Consciousness of lost limbs, 10-12 Continued dreams, 60, 61Continued movements, 268Complementary colours, 130, 199 ( see After- images)Cramp (Kahlbaum) , 183; co- ordinated (Romberg) , 123; of the sensory nerves (Hagen) , 123; of recog- nition ( Royce) , 277; of attention(Stanley Hall), 208 Crime caused by hallucinations, 34 Cromwell, 79Crystal-visions, 63-70, 72, 193 , 274,297; indications of dream-state in, 297 , 298; latent memories revived in, 66-69; " telepathic, " 66,297 Curtius Rufus, 79DATURA STRAMONIUM , 44 , 178Deaf-mutes, " auditory " hallucinations in, 185 Defects of human organism a cause of hallucination, 6Delusions mental, distinguished from sense-deceptions, IDelusional insanity, 23 Delirium tremens, 42, 174Dementia, 23; acute, 21; advanced,25; progressive, 27 Dæmoniacal possession, 37 Dæmonology, 56 Dentists, unfounded charges brought against, 46; hallucinations of pain noted by, 240 Descartes, 78 Devil, see Hallucinations ofDiplopia, 3Divination by crystals, mirrors, etc. ,63, 65 Doubling of hallucination by pressure on eye, 200-202; by prism, see Prism|closing eyes, 202, 203 Dissociation of consciousness, 71 , 75,92, 93, 99, 103 , 106 , 138, 141 ,147, 148, 152, 153 , 211; inducedby automatic movements, fixedgazing, etc. , 96, 99; degrees of,73, 156, 158, 324; partial, 322,324 sense of time lost in, 100,105 Dreams, 30, 50 etc. , 59, 109, 157,192; artificially induced, 57;caused by association of ideas (Spitta) , 50, 51; caused by nerve- stimulation ( Spitta), 50, 51 , 52,53, 102; hypnotic, 59; hypnotic,guidance of, 60; sense of unreality in, 254 Dream- state,Dissociation)Drusus, 7950, 292, 298 (seeEAR disease, 161 , 263 , 267-268 Early theories of hallucination , 110Eccentric_projection , 9 , 115 , 125 ,127, 248 Ecstasy, 38, 39, 40, 211 Elementary sensations, see Noises in ear, ocular spectra, etc. Entoptic phenomena,spectrasee OcularEntotic sounds, see Noises in earEpidemic of dancing, 36, 37 Epidemic hallucinations, see Hallu- cinations, epidemic Epilepsy, 33, 34, 74, 143 , 167 , 180,195Epileptic aura, see Aura, epileptic Ether, 44, 187 , 267 Euphoria, 38, 50 Exhaustion, 35 (see Fatigue); of brain- elements, 153 , 192Expectancy, 94, 95FAINTING from terror, 99Fallacious perception, physiologicalprocess in, 144; psychological con- ception of, 12, 17; sensory characterof, 112, 322 ( see Hallucination)Faradisation, 12 Fata morgana, 3Fatigue, 6, 7, 239INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 387Fever-delirium, 49, 74, 237Fixed attention , 154, 213 , 216, 217 Fixed gaze, 95, 99 Fixed ideas, 27, 38Fly agaric, 40, 44 Folie circulaire, 22, 267Forgetfulness , 108, 289, 299 Fox, G. , 79GALVANISM, effect on auditory sense,162, 176, 177 , 222 Gastromancy, 65 General paralysis, 24, 26, 28 , 73 Giddiness, 7 (see Vertigo)Gigantic apparitions, 44, 79, 93 , 202 Greek idea of soul, 246Grief, 96HALLUCINATIONS—auditory, 23, 24, 30, 35, 44, 46,49, 107, 108, 114 , 157 , 161 , 178,188, 195 , 222, 238, 263 auditory, in brain lesions, 268-269auditory, in disease of ear, 267-268 auditory, in deaf mutes, 185auditory, in electrical stimulation,222auditory, experimental, 70, 71,auditory, in paranoia hallucinatoria,23 auditory, rhythmic, 266, 267 auditory, see "Audible Thinking, "Voices, etc.of artists, 38, 80, 81 "borderland, " 90, 299coincidental, 103 , 272, 286-288,293-298, 315 collective, 94, 307, 313, 316 a cause ofcrime, 34 of childhood, 30, 85 ofthe cutaneous sensibility, 29, 54 definition of, 15 differences of character in, 73degrees of externalisation in , 236,237, 238-248distorted, 202 of devil, 33 , 36, 37 , 39 , 80, 190early accounts of, 77-80 enlarged, see Magnifying- glasspreceding epilepsy, 100 epidemic, 190, 308, 310-313 erotic, 35, 44 , 46, 48Hallucinations-Continued.induced by exposure and fatigue, 6,7, 74, 75in hemianopsy, 128, 134, 136, 202 heredity in, 72, 88, 89 in hemianæsthesia, 35hypnagogic, 74, 93, 94 , 117, 119,157, 295, 297in hypnosis, 58, 60, 61 , 195 , 198,248, 249, 285, 300 in hysteria, 34-36, 72, 164 and illusion, author's definition ,148, 149and illusion , Esquirol's distinction,18, 19, 20of insanity, 16, 20, 27 , 29, 183 , 322 international census of, see Censusof intoxication, 41 ( see Alcohol )of more than one sense, 31 , 107,IIO, 237 ofthe muscular sense, 29, 180, 183 ,184of moving objects, 35 , 128, 129, 233 of memory, 117 , 230, 277 , 323 negative, 20, 203-207 , 212, 214 ,215, 217-219, 326 olfactory, 27, 28, 46, 49, 53, 54,62, 179, 180, 229, 239, 241 ofthe organic sense, 29of pain, 240post-hypnotic, 61 , 62, 72, 323 in psychoneurosis, 32, 33 reflected, see Crystal- visions, Mirror religious, 38, 39, 77-80, 312 rudimentary, 108 , 110, 111 , 123 retroactive, 285 in somatic disease, 48, 49sporadic, in the sane, 20, 278 of taste, 27, 28, 49, 241tactile, 28, 35 , 62, 105, 107, 108 unilateral , 32, 123, 128, 164, 174,195 visual, 30, 35 , 107, 108, 197, 222- 230, 241; visual, voluntarily in- duced, 194 (see Crystal- visions,Visions, etc. )Hallucinatory colours, 200; conversa- tions, 265-266 Haschisch, 40, 45, 48, 187 Health, 88 Hemiopia, 166 Heredity, 72, 88; in synesthesia, 229388INDEX OF SUBJECTS.Hobbes, 78Hydromancy ( divination by water) , 65Hyperæsthesia, 27 , 133 , 141 , 167 ,208; of retina, 8, 177 , 239, 260 ,267 Hypnotism, see Hallucinations inhypnosis; also Rapport; its ser- vices to psychology; and Nancy SchoolHypochondriasis, 2, 25 Hysteria, see Hallucinations inICTERUS, 8"Identifying " fallacy (Kraepelin) ,280Identity, mistakes of, 83, 193 , 291;of sensory and ideational centres,133-136 Idiopathic and symptomatic hallucina- tions, 20 Illusions, 257Illusions ( in Esquirol's sense) , 18,20, 234, 237, 291 , 326; ( author's definition) , 148, 149 Inanition, 72, 160Mania, 22, 71 , 73Marie de Moerl, 39Melancholia attonita, 21 , 211 Memory, delusions or fallacies of, 104 ,105, 106, 283 , 316; hallucinations of, see Hallucinations of memory;loss of, see Amnesia; memoryspasms (Friedreich ), 262, 268;memories revived in dreams andcrystal-visions, 51 , 66Meningitis, 163, 167 Mental and sensory delusions distin- guished, I , 2Mercury- poisoning, 44 Microscope, 118 Mirage, 308 Mirror reflecting hallucination , 95 ,150, 200, 231 , 232, 296, 298Mirror- writing, 67, 262 Misreading of words ( Münsterberg's experiments), 198 Montana, 80 Mutism, 184Myopia, 163Individual or idiosyncratic fallacies NANCY SCHOOL of Hypnotism, 196 of perception, 12 , 336 Inhibition, 141, 152Insanity, hallucinations of, see Hallu- cinations of insanityIntegritätsgefühl ( feeling of spiritual unity, Du Prel ), II Intra- aural sounds, see Noises in the earInvoluntary speaking, 182, 183 (see ' Audible thinking ")66Involuntary whispering in telepathic experiments, 318JOAN OF ARC, 39 Julian the Apostate, 65, 79LEAD- POISONING, 44 Lecanomancy, 65Light- chaos or light- dust, 168, 169 Localisation theories, 137Loyola, 79 Luther, 79MACROPTIC vision , 202Magnifying- glass, hallucinations en- larged by, 69, 150, 231 , 232Nationality in hallucination , 85 Negative hallucinations, 20, 203, 204,205, 206, 207, 212, 214, 215, 217,218, 219, 326Neurasthenia, 32 Neuritis optica, 164, 174Nicotine poisoning, 169, 239 Nightmare, 56 Nitrous oxide, 46 Noises in the ear, 177-178, 258,267 Number habit, 318Nystagmus, 202Objectivation des types, 60 Ocular spectra, 159, 170Olfactory hallucinations, see Hallu cinations, olfactoryOnychomancy, 65 Opium, 34, 40, 46, 48, 187Optic nerve, degeneration of, 165 Optical paradoxes, 5, 340Organic or common sensation, 6, 29,55, 157, 158, 187 Ovarian disease, 29 Over- work, 95INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 389PARALYSIS, 26, 28, 73 , 166 Paranoia, 23, 62 Paresthesia, 6, 25, 29Pascal, 78 Pathological states, hallucinations in,6, 8, etc. Peritonitis, 2Perceptions, objective and subjective,distinguished, I"Phantasticon " (Joh. Müller) , 114Point de repère ( Binet) , 149, 213 , 220,231 , 232, 233; new conception of,235, 314 Poisons as a cause of dissociation, 153;narcotics, etc. , specific action of,46, 47 · Post hypnotic hallucinations, see Hallucinations, post-hypnotic Pressure on the eye-ball, 170, 200,201Prism, experiments with, 130, 150,200, 231 , 232 Pseudo-hallucinations, 249Pseudo-recognition, 277Psychic blindness, 215, 216 ""Psychic elements, " 326, 329Selection, involuntary, in Census In- quiry, 288Self- suggestion in hypnosis, 208 Sensory and mental delusions dis- tinguished, I , 2Septimius Severus, 65 Severn, Mrs. , 240Sex in hallucination, 83 , 184 Shell-hearing, 70Signes réducteurs (Taine) , 118Smell, hallucinations of, see Hallu- cinations, olfactory Socrates, 77Solitude, 96-157Somnambulism, 34 Sound-seeing, see Audition colorée Spasm of apperception ( Royce) , 277Spasmodic chattering, 262 , 268 "Speaking with tongues," 262 Starting factor in hallucination, 231 Subliminal consciousness, 66, 70 Subconscious ideas, 51 , 194Suggesting factor in hallucination, 231Suggestion, 26, 94 (see Rapport);"retinal action accounted for by,199Psychical Research, Society for, 82, Swedenborg, 39 273, 292RAPHAEL, 80Rapport, 204-212 Reading, prolonged, 98 Reflex hallucinations ( Kahlbaum), 117 Reflex sensations, see Synæsthesia" Refluent " nerve-currents, 125, 126,131 Reproduction, organs of, 29 " Retinal action " in hallucination,125, 128, 130, 199-202 Retroactive hallucinations, 285 Reverberation of impression, 7Rudimentary hallucinations, see Hal- lucinations, rudimentarySAINTS, hallucinations of, 32, 39, 325 Salpêtrière School of hypnotism, 196 Santonin, 8, 46 Savonarola, 78 Scheme of physiological process in false perception, 144 Schumann, 81 , 338Scott, W., 81""Synæsthesia, 221 , 228, 229TABES, 2Telepathic hallucinations, 272-292,316; experimental, 241 , 317 Telepathic crystal-visions, 66; impres- sion, definition of, 274Telepathy, 76, 190, 201 , 241 , 272,274, 301 , 313, 317 , 320, 335 Temperament, 188 Terror, 34, 45, 250, 251 Theodoric, 80Thought- transference, 317 (see Tele- pathy)Tobacco, 169, 239 " Training " in hypnotic subject, 220 " Transferred " sensations, 241Tumours in the brain , 167 , 174 , 180 Typhoid fever, 8Typhus-delirium, 34, 49UNILATERAL hallucinations, see Hallucinations, unilateral Universal fallacies of perceptions , 3 ,336, 337, 341390 INDEX OF SUBJECTS.VERMIN, reptiles, etc. ,of, 35, 41 , 42, 43hallucinations 83, 287, 300; international censusof, 82 et seq. , 109, 242, 275 , 287 Veridical hallucinations, 230, 272, | Weight, hallucinations of, 337-340 etc.Vertigo, 44, 261 Visions, 38, 39, 79 , 80, 188, 189 Visual hallucinations, see Hallucina- tions, visual, Visions, Crystal visions, etc. Voices, heard by insane, 2 , 24, 32,182, 238, 260, 265; in delirium tremens, 43; in fever delirium , 49Whispering, dreams produced by, 58;whispering, unconscious, in telepathic experiments, 318 Witches and witchcraft, 36, 37, 56,80, 190 Witches' salves and philtres, 41XANTHOPSIA (yellow vision) , 8ZOETROPE, 7WAKING hallucinations, 76, 77 , 82, Zigzag figure in migraine, 173REESE LIBRARYOF THE UNIVERSITYOFCALIFORNIAPRINTED BY WALTER SCOTT, LIMITED, NEWCASTLE- ON-TYNE.

Front matter

THE CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE SERIES.

EDITED BY HAVELOCK ELLIS.

HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS.

HALLUCINATIONSAND ILLUSIONS .A STUDY OF THEFALLACIES OF PERCEPTIONBYEDMUND PARISHREESEIBRARYOF THE UNIVERSITYOF CALIFORNIALONDON:WALTER SCOTT, LTD. , PATERNOSTER SQUARE.CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS,153-157 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK.1897.695-81BF1057P3ALIBRARYOLOGY BRACKEDUC.PSYCH.LIBRARYREESELIBRARYOF THEUNIVERSITYOF CALIFORNIA